Articles | Volume 21, issue 18
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13763-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13763-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
16 Sep 2021
Research article |
| 16 Sep 2021
| 16 Sep 2021
The semiannual oscillation (SAO) in the tropical middle atmosphere and its gravity wave driving in reanalyses and satellite observations
Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung – Stratosphäre (IEK-7), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
Mohamadou Diallo
Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung – Stratosphäre (IEK-7), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
Peter Preusse
Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung – Stratosphäre (IEK-7), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
Martin G. Mlynczak
NASA Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, USA
Michael J. Schwartz
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
National Center for Atmospheric Research, High Altitude Observatory, Boulder, Colorado, USA
Martin Riese
Institut für Energie- und Klimaforschung – Stratosphäre (IEK-7), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
Related authors
Ales Kuchar, Gunter Stober, Dimitry Pokhotelov, Huixin Liu, Han-Li Liu, Manfred Ern, Damian Murphy, Diego Janches, Tracy Moffat-Griffin, Nicholas Mitchell, and Christoph Jacobi
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2827, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2827, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Annales Geophysicae (ANGEO).
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how the healing of the Antarctic ozone layer is affecting winds high above the South Pole. Using ground-based radar, satellite data, and computer models, we found that winds in the upper atmosphere have become stronger over the past two decades. These changes appear to be linked to shifts in the lower atmosphere caused by ozone recovery. Our results show that human efforts to repair the ozone layer are also influencing climate patterns far above Earth’s surface.
Christoph Jacobi, Khalil Karami, Ales Kuchar, Manfred Ern, Toralf Renkwitz, Ralph Latteck, and Jorge L. Chau
Adv. Radio Sci., 23, 21–31, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-21-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-21-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Half-hourly mean winds have been obtained using ground-based low-frequency and very high frequency radio observations of the mesopause region at Collm, Germany, since 1984. Long-term changes of wind variances, which are proxies for short-period atmospheric gravity waves, have been analysed. Gravity wave amplitudes increase with time in winter, but mainly decrease in summer. The trends are consistent with mean wind changes according to wave theory.
Rasul Baikhadzhaev, Felix Ploeger, Peter Preusse, Manfred Ern, and Thomas Birner
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-4088, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-4088, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Across four reanalyses, shallow branch of the stratospheric overturning circulation was found to be driven by the largest waves with wavenumbers 1 to 3, and deep branch of the circulation was found to be driven by smaller-scale waves. Yet, the height of the level separating the branches is depended on the reanalysis considered. Thus using the appropriate separation levels in model inter-comparisons could reduce the spread between models regarding climatology and trends in the circulation.
Sebastian Rhode, Peter Preusse, Jörn Ungermann, Inna Polichtchouk, Kaoru Sato, Shingo Watanabe, Manfred Ern, Karlheinz Nogai, Björn-Martin Sinnhuber, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 5785–5819, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-5785-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-5785-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the capabilities of a proposed satellite mission, CAIRT, for observing gravity waves throughout the middle atmosphere and present the necessary methodology for in-depth wave analysis. Our findings suggest that such a satellite mission is highly capable of resolving individual wave parameters and could give new insights into the role of gravity waves in general atmospheric circulation and atmospheric processes.
Björn Linder, Peter Preusse, Qiuyu Chen, Ole Martin Christensen, Lukas Krasauskas, Linda Megner, Manfred Ern, and Jörg Gumbel
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 3829–3841, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3829-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3829-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Swedish research satellite MATS (Mesospheric Airglow/Aerosol Tomography and Spectroscopy) is designed to study atmospheric waves in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. These waves perturb the temperature field, and thus, by observing three-dimensional temperature fluctuations, their properties can be quantified. This pre-study uses synthetic MATS data generated from a general circulation model to investigate how well wave properties can be retrieved.
Manfred Ern, Mohamadou A. Diallo, Dina Khordakova, Isabell Krisch, Peter Preusse, Oliver Reitebuch, Jörn Ungermann, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9549–9583, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9549-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9549-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) of the stratospheric tropical winds is an important mode of climate variability but is not well reproduced in free-running climate models. We use the novel global wind observations by the Aeolus satellite and radiosondes to show that the QBO is captured well in three modern reanalyses (ERA-5, JRA-55, and MERRA-2). Good agreement is also found also between Aeolus and reanalyses for large-scale tropical wave modes in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere.
Sebastian Rhode, Peter Preusse, Manfred Ern, Jörn Ungermann, Lukas Krasauskas, Julio Bacmeister, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 7901–7934, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7901-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7901-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Gravity waves (GWs) transport energy vertically and horizontally within the atmosphere and thereby affect wind speeds far from their sources. Here, we present a model that identifies orographic GW sources and predicts the pathways of the excited GWs through the atmosphere for a better understanding of horizontal GW propagation. We use this model to explain physical patterns in satellite observations (e.g., low GW activity above the Himalaya) and predict seasonal patterns of GW propagation.
Qiuyu Chen, Konstantin Ntokas, Björn Linder, Lukas Krasauskas, Manfred Ern, Peter Preusse, Jörn Ungermann, Erich Becker, Martin Kaufmann, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 7071–7103, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-7071-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-7071-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Observations of phase speed and direction spectra as well as zonal mean net gravity wave momentum flux are required to understand how gravity waves reach the mesosphere–lower thermosphere and how they there interact with background flow. To this end we propose flying two CubeSats, each deploying a spatial heterodyne spectrometer for limb observation of the airglow. End-to-end simulations demonstrate that individual gravity waves are retrieved faithfully for the expected instrument performance.
Manfred Ern, Peter Preusse, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 15093–15133, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15093-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15093-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Based on data from the HIRDLS and SABER infrared limb sounding satellite instruments, we investigate the intermittency of global distributions of gravity wave (GW) potential energies and GW momentum fluxes in the stratosphere and mesosphere using probability distribution functions (PDFs) and Gini coefficients. We compare GW intermittency in different regions, seasons, and altitudes. These results can help to improve GW parameterizations and the distributions of GWs resolved in models.
Mohamadou A. Diallo, Felix Ploeger, Michaela I. Hegglin, Manfred Ern, Jens-Uwe Grooß, Sergey Khaykin, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 14303–14321, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14303-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14303-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The quasi-biennial oacillation disruption events in both 2016 and 2020 decreased lower-stratospheric water vapour and ozone. Differences in the strength and depth of the anomalous lower-stratospheric circulation and ozone are due to differences in tropical upwelling and cold-point temperature induced by lower-stratospheric planetary and gravity wave breaking. The differences in water vapour are due to higher cold-point temperature in 2020 induced by Australian wildfire.
Cornelia Strube, Peter Preusse, Manfred Ern, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 18641–18668, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-18641-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-18641-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
High gravity wave (GW) momentum fluxes in the lower stratospheric southern polar vortex around 60° S are still poorly understood. Few GW sources are found at these latitudes. We present a ray tracing case study on waves resolved in high-resolution global model temperatures southeast of New Zealand. We show that lateral propagation of more than 1000 km takes place below 20 km altitude, and a variety of orographic and non-orographic sources located north of 50° S generate the wave field.
Markus Geldenhuys, Peter Preusse, Isabell Krisch, Christoph Zülicke, Jörn Ungermann, Manfred Ern, Felix Friedl-Vallon, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 10393–10412, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10393-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10393-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A large-scale gravity wave (GW) was observed spanning the whole of Greenland. The GWs proposed in this paper come from a new jet–topography mechanism. The topography compresses the flow and triggers a change in u- and
v-wind components. The jet becomes out of geostrophic balance and sheds energy in the form of GWs to restore the balance. This topography–jet interaction was not previously considered by the community, rendering the impact of the gravity waves largely unaccounted for.
Mohamadou Diallo, Manfred Ern, and Felix Ploeger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7515–7544, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7515-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7515-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Despite good agreement in the spatial structure, there are substantial differences in the strength of the Brewer–Dobson circulation (BDC) and its modulations in the UTLS and upper stratosphere. The tropical upwelling is generally weaker in ERA5 than in ERAI due to weaker planetary and gravity wave breaking in the UTLS. Analysis of the BDC trend shows an acceleration of the BDC of about 1.5 % decade-1 due to the long-term intensification in wave breaking, consistent with climate predictions.
Isabell Krisch, Manfred Ern, Lars Hoffmann, Peter Preusse, Cornelia Strube, Jörn Ungermann, Wolfgang Woiwode, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 11469–11490, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11469-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11469-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In 2016, a scientific research flight above Scandinavia acquired various atmospheric data (temperature, gas composition, etc.). Through advanced 3-D reconstruction methods, a superposition of multiple gravity waves was identified. An in-depth analysis enabled the characterisation of these waves as well as the identification of their sources. This work will enable a better understanding of atmosphere dynamics and could lead to improved climate projections.
Cornelia Strube, Manfred Ern, Peter Preusse, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 4927–4945, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-4927-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-4927-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We present how inertial instabilities affect gravity wave background removal filters on different temperature data sets. Vertical filtering has to remove a part of the gravity wave spectrum to eliminate inertial instability remnants, while horizontal filtering leaves typical gravity wave scales untouched. In addition, we show that it is possible to separate inertial instabilities from gravity wave perturbations for infrared limb-sounding satellite profiles using a cutoff zonal wavenumber of 6.
Ales Kuchar, Gunter Stober, Dimitry Pokhotelov, Huixin Liu, Han-Li Liu, Manfred Ern, Damian Murphy, Diego Janches, Tracy Moffat-Griffin, Nicholas Mitchell, and Christoph Jacobi
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2827, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2827, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Annales Geophysicae (ANGEO).
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how the healing of the Antarctic ozone layer is affecting winds high above the South Pole. Using ground-based radar, satellite data, and computer models, we found that winds in the upper atmosphere have become stronger over the past two decades. These changes appear to be linked to shifts in the lower atmosphere caused by ozone recovery. Our results show that human efforts to repair the ozone layer are also influencing climate patterns far above Earth’s surface.
Christoph Jacobi, Khalil Karami, Ales Kuchar, Manfred Ern, Toralf Renkwitz, Ralph Latteck, and Jorge L. Chau
Adv. Radio Sci., 23, 21–31, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-21-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/ars-23-21-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Half-hourly mean winds have been obtained using ground-based low-frequency and very high frequency radio observations of the mesopause region at Collm, Germany, since 1984. Long-term changes of wind variances, which are proxies for short-period atmospheric gravity waves, have been analysed. Gravity wave amplitudes increase with time in winter, but mainly decrease in summer. The trends are consistent with mean wind changes according to wave theory.
Gerald Wetzel, Anne Kleinert, Sören Johansson, Felix Friedl-Vallon, Michael Höpfner, Jörn Ungermann, Tom Neubert, Valéry Catoire, Cyril Crevoisier, Andreas Engel, Thomas Gulde, Patrick Jacquet, Oliver Kirner, Erik Kretschmer, Thomas Kulessa, Johannes C. Laube, Guido Maucher, Hans Nordmeyer, Christof Piesch, Peter Preusse, Markus Retzlaff, Georg Schardt, Johan Schillings, Herbert Schneider, Axel Schönfeld, Tanja Schuck, Wolfgang Woiwode, Martin Riese, and Peter Braesicke
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1838, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1838, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We present vertical trace gas profiles from the first balloon flight of the newly developed GLORIA-B limb-imaging Fourier-Transform spectrometer. Longer-lived gases are compared to external measurements to assess the quality of the GLORIA-B observations. Diurnal changes of photochemically active species are compared to model simulations. GLORIA-B demonstrates the capability of balloon-borne limb imaging to provide high-resolution vertical profiles of trace gases up to the middle stratosphere.
Florian Voet, Felix Ploeger, Johannes Laube, Peter Preusse, Paul Konopka, Jens-Uwe Grooß, Jörn Ungermann, Björn-Martin Sinnhuber, Michael Höpfner, Bernd Funke, Gerald Wetzel, Sören Johansson, Gabriele Stiller, Eric Ray, and Michaela I. Hegglin
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 3541–3565, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-3541-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-3541-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study refines estimates of the stratospheric “age of air”, a measure of how long air circulates in the stratosphere. By analyzing correlations between trace gases measurable by satellites, the research introduces a method that reduces uncertainties and detects small-scale atmospheric features. This improved understanding of stratospheric circulation is crucial for better climate models and predictions, enhancing our ability to assess the impacts of climate change on the atmosphere.
Jingyu Wang, Gabriel Chiodo, Timofei Sukhodolov, Blanca Ayarzagüena, William T. Ball, Mohamadou Diallo, Birgit Hassler, James Keeble, Peer Nowack, Clara Orbe, and Sandro Vattioni
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-340, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-340, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We analyzed the ozone response under elevated CO2 using the data from CMIP6 DECK experiments. We then looked at the relations between ozone response and temperature and circulation changes to identify drivers of the ozone change. The climate feedback of ozone is investigated by doing offline calculations and comparing models with and without interactive chemistry. We find that ozone-climate interactions are important for Earth System Models, thus should be considered in future model development.
Rasul Baikhadzhaev, Felix Ploeger, Peter Preusse, Manfred Ern, and Thomas Birner
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-4088, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-4088, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Across four reanalyses, shallow branch of the stratospheric overturning circulation was found to be driven by the largest waves with wavenumbers 1 to 3, and deep branch of the circulation was found to be driven by smaller-scale waves. Yet, the height of the level separating the branches is depended on the reanalysis considered. Thus using the appropriate separation levels in model inter-comparisons could reduce the spread between models regarding climatology and trends in the circulation.
Lucien Froidevaux, Douglas E. Kinnison, Benjamin Gaubert, Michael J. Schwartz, Nathaniel J. Livesey, William G. Read, Charles G. Bardeen, Jerry R. Ziemke, and Ryan A. Fuller
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 597–624, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-597-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-597-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We compare observed changes in ozone (O3) and carbon monoxide (CO) in the tropical upper troposphere (10–15 km altitude) for 2005–2020 to predictions from model simulations that track the evolution of natural and industrial emissions transported to this region. An increasing trend in measured upper-tropospheric O3 is well matched by model trends. We find that changes in modeled industrial CO surface emissions lead to better model agreement with observed slight decreases in upper-tropospheric CO.
Kimberlee Dubé, Susann Tegtmeier, Adam Bourassa, Daniel Zawada, Douglas Degenstein, William Randel, Sean Davis, Michael Schwartz, Nathaniel Livesey, and Anne Smith
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 12925–12941, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-12925-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-12925-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Greenhouse gas emissions that warm the troposphere also result in stratospheric cooling. The cooling rate is difficult to quantify above 35 km due to a deficit of long-term observational data with high vertical resolution in this region. We use satellite observations from several instruments, including a new temperature product from OSIRIS, to show that the upper stratosphere, from 35–60 km, cooled by 0.5 to 1 K per decade over 2005–2021 and by 0.6 K per decade over 1979–2021.
Sebastian Rhode, Peter Preusse, Jörn Ungermann, Inna Polichtchouk, Kaoru Sato, Shingo Watanabe, Manfred Ern, Karlheinz Nogai, Björn-Martin Sinnhuber, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 5785–5819, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-5785-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-5785-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the capabilities of a proposed satellite mission, CAIRT, for observing gravity waves throughout the middle atmosphere and present the necessary methodology for in-depth wave analysis. Our findings suggest that such a satellite mission is highly capable of resolving individual wave parameters and could give new insights into the role of gravity waves in general atmospheric circulation and atmospheric processes.
Sören Johansson, Michael Höpfner, Felix Friedl-Vallon, Norbert Glatthor, Thomas Gulde, Vincent Huijnen, Anne Kleinert, Erik Kretschmer, Guido Maucher, Tom Neubert, Hans Nordmeyer, Christof Piesch, Peter Preusse, Martin Riese, Björn-Martin Sinnhuber, Jörn Ungermann, Gerald Wetzel, and Wolfgang Woiwode
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 8125–8138, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-8125-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-8125-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present airborne infrared limb sounding GLORIA measurements of ammonia (NH3) in the upper troposphere of air masses within the Asian monsoon and of those connected with biomass burning. Comparing CAMS (Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service) model data, we find that the model reproduces the measured enhanced NH3 within the Asian monsoon well but not that within biomass burning plumes, where no enhanced NH3 is measured in the upper troposphere but considerable amounts are simulated by CAMS.
Björn Linder, Peter Preusse, Qiuyu Chen, Ole Martin Christensen, Lukas Krasauskas, Linda Megner, Manfred Ern, and Jörg Gumbel
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 3829–3841, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3829-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3829-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The Swedish research satellite MATS (Mesospheric Airglow/Aerosol Tomography and Spectroscopy) is designed to study atmospheric waves in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. These waves perturb the temperature field, and thus, by observing three-dimensional temperature fluctuations, their properties can be quantified. This pre-study uses synthetic MATS data generated from a general circulation model to investigate how well wave properties can be retrieved.
Konstantin Ntokas, Jörn Ungermann, Martin Kaufmann, Tom Neubert, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 5681–5696, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5681-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5681-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
A nanosatellite was developed to obtain 1-D vertical temperature profiles in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, which can be used to derive wave parameters needed for atmospheric models. A new processing method is shown, which allows one to extract two 1-D temperature profiles. The location of the two profiles is analyzed, as it is needed for deriving wave parameters. We show that this method is feasible, which however will increase the requirements of an accurate calibration and processing.
Roland Eichinger, Sebastian Rhode, Hella Garny, Peter Preusse, Petr Pisoft, Aleš Kuchař, Patrick Jöckel, Astrid Kerkweg, and Bastian Kern
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 5561–5583, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5561-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-5561-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The columnar approach of gravity wave (GW) schemes results in dynamical model biases, but parallel decomposition makes horizontal GW propagation computationally unfeasible. In the global model EMAC, we approximate it by GW redistribution at one altitude using tailor-made redistribution maps generated with a ray tracer. More spread-out GW drag helps reconcile the model with observations and close the 60°S GW gap. Polar vortex dynamics are improved, enhancing climate model credibility.
Manfred Ern, Mohamadou A. Diallo, Dina Khordakova, Isabell Krisch, Peter Preusse, Oliver Reitebuch, Jörn Ungermann, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9549–9583, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9549-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9549-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) of the stratospheric tropical winds is an important mode of climate variability but is not well reproduced in free-running climate models. We use the novel global wind observations by the Aeolus satellite and radiosondes to show that the QBO is captured well in three modern reanalyses (ERA-5, JRA-55, and MERRA-2). Good agreement is also found also between Aeolus and reanalyses for large-scale tropical wave modes in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere.
Sebastian Rhode, Peter Preusse, Manfred Ern, Jörn Ungermann, Lukas Krasauskas, Julio Bacmeister, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 7901–7934, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7901-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7901-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Gravity waves (GWs) transport energy vertically and horizontally within the atmosphere and thereby affect wind speeds far from their sources. Here, we present a model that identifies orographic GW sources and predicts the pathways of the excited GWs through the atmosphere for a better understanding of horizontal GW propagation. We use this model to explain physical patterns in satellite observations (e.g., low GW activity above the Himalaya) and predict seasonal patterns of GW propagation.
Frank Werner, Nathaniel J. Livesey, Luis F. Millán, William G. Read, Michael J. Schwartz, Paul A. Wagner, William H. Daffer, Alyn Lambert, Sasha N. Tolstoff, and Michelle L. Santee
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 2733–2751, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2733-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-2733-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The algorithm that produces the near-real-time data products of the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder has been updated. The new algorithm is based on machine learning techniques and yields data products with much improved accuracy. It is shown that the new algorithm outperforms the previous versions, even when it is trained on only a few years of satellite observations. This confirms the potential of applying machine learning to the near-real-time efforts of other current and future mission concepts.
Qiuyu Chen, Konstantin Ntokas, Björn Linder, Lukas Krasauskas, Manfred Ern, Peter Preusse, Jörn Ungermann, Erich Becker, Martin Kaufmann, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 7071–7103, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-7071-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-7071-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Observations of phase speed and direction spectra as well as zonal mean net gravity wave momentum flux are required to understand how gravity waves reach the mesosphere–lower thermosphere and how they there interact with background flow. To this end we propose flying two CubeSats, each deploying a spatial heterodyne spectrometer for limb observation of the airglow. End-to-end simulations demonstrate that individual gravity waves are retrieved faithfully for the expected instrument performance.
Manfred Ern, Peter Preusse, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 15093–15133, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15093-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15093-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Based on data from the HIRDLS and SABER infrared limb sounding satellite instruments, we investigate the intermittency of global distributions of gravity wave (GW) potential energies and GW momentum fluxes in the stratosphere and mesosphere using probability distribution functions (PDFs) and Gini coefficients. We compare GW intermittency in different regions, seasons, and altitudes. These results can help to improve GW parameterizations and the distributions of GWs resolved in models.
Mohamadou A. Diallo, Felix Ploeger, Michaela I. Hegglin, Manfred Ern, Jens-Uwe Grooß, Sergey Khaykin, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 14303–14321, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14303-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14303-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The quasi-biennial oacillation disruption events in both 2016 and 2020 decreased lower-stratospheric water vapour and ozone. Differences in the strength and depth of the anomalous lower-stratospheric circulation and ozone are due to differences in tropical upwelling and cold-point temperature induced by lower-stratospheric planetary and gravity wave breaking. The differences in water vapour are due to higher cold-point temperature in 2020 induced by Australian wildfire.
Sumanta Sarkhel, Gunter Stober, Jorge L. Chau, Steven M. Smith, Christoph Jacobi, Subarna Mondal, Martin G. Mlynczak, and James M. Russell III
Ann. Geophys., 40, 179–190, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-179-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-40-179-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A rare gravity wave event was observed on the night of 25 April 2017 over northern Germany. An all-sky airglow imager recorded an upward-propagating wave at different altitudes in mesosphere with a prominent wave front above 91 km and faintly observed below. Based on wind and satellite-borne temperature profiles close to the event location, we have found the presence of a leaky thermal duct layer in 85–91 km. The appearance of this duct layer caused the wave amplitudes to diminish below 91 km.
Dina Khordakova, Christian Rolf, Jens-Uwe Grooß, Rolf Müller, Paul Konopka, Andreas Wieser, Martina Krämer, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 1059–1079, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1059-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1059-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Extreme storms transport humidity from the troposphere to the stratosphere. Here it has a strong impact on the climate. With ongoing global warming, we expect more storms and, hence, an enhancement of this effect. A case study was performed in order to measure the impact of the direct injection of water vapor into the lower stratosphere. The measurements displayed a significant transport of water vapor into the lower stratosphere, and this was supported by satellite and reanalysis data.
Cornelia Strube, Peter Preusse, Manfred Ern, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 18641–18668, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-18641-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-18641-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
High gravity wave (GW) momentum fluxes in the lower stratospheric southern polar vortex around 60° S are still poorly understood. Few GW sources are found at these latitudes. We present a ray tracing case study on waves resolved in high-resolution global model temperatures southeast of New Zealand. We show that lateral propagation of more than 1000 km takes place below 20 km altitude, and a variety of orographic and non-orographic sources located north of 50° S generate the wave field.
Frank Werner, Nathaniel J. Livesey, Michael J. Schwartz, William G. Read, Michelle L. Santee, and Galina Wind
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 7749–7773, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-7749-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-7749-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
In this study we present an improved cloud detection scheme for the Microwave Limb Sounder, which is based on a feedforward artificial neural network. This new algorithm is shown not only to reliably detect high and mid-level convection containing even small amounts of cloud water but also to distinguish between high-reaching and mid-level to low convection.
Hugh C. Pumphrey, Michael J. Schwartz, Michelle L. Santee, George P. Kablick III, Michael D. Fromm, and Nathaniel J. Livesey
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 16645–16659, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-16645-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-16645-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Forest fires in British Columbia in August 2017 caused an unusual phenomonon: smoke and gases from the fires rose quickly to a height of 10 km. From there, the pollution continued to rise more slowly for many weeks, travelling around the world as it did so. In this paper, we describe how we used data from a satellite instrument to observe this polluted volume of air. The satellite has now been working for 16 years but has observed only three events of this type.
Nathaniel J. Livesey, William G. Read, Lucien Froidevaux, Alyn Lambert, Michelle L. Santee, Michael J. Schwartz, Luis F. Millán, Robert F. Jarnot, Paul A. Wagner, Dale F. Hurst, Kaley A. Walker, Patrick E. Sheese, and Gerald E. Nedoluha
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 15409–15430, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-15409-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-15409-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS), an instrument on NASA's Aura mission launched in 2004, measures vertical profiles of the temperature and composition of Earth's "middle atmosphere" (the region from ~12 to ~100 km altitude). We describe how, among the 16 trace gases measured by MLS, the measurements of water vapor (H2O) and nitrous oxide (N2O) have started to drift since ~2010. The paper also discusses the origins of this drift and work to ameliorate it in a new version of the MLS dataset.
Markus Geldenhuys, Peter Preusse, Isabell Krisch, Christoph Zülicke, Jörn Ungermann, Manfred Ern, Felix Friedl-Vallon, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 10393–10412, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10393-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10393-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A large-scale gravity wave (GW) was observed spanning the whole of Greenland. The GWs proposed in this paper come from a new jet–topography mechanism. The topography compresses the flow and triggers a change in u- and
v-wind components. The jet becomes out of geostrophic balance and sheds energy in the form of GWs to restore the balance. This topography–jet interaction was not previously considered by the community, rendering the impact of the gravity waves largely unaccounted for.
Lukas Krasauskas, Jörn Ungermann, Peter Preusse, Felix Friedl-Vallon, Andreas Zahn, Helmut Ziereis, Christian Rolf, Felix Plöger, Paul Konopka, Bärbel Vogel, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 10249–10272, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10249-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10249-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A Rossby wave (RW) breaking event was observed over the North Atlantic during the WISE measurement campaign in October 2017. Infrared limb sounding measurements of trace gases in the lower stratosphere, including high-resolution 3-D tomographic reconstruction, revealed complex spatial structures in stratospheric tracers near the polar jet related to previous RW breaking events. Backward-trajectory analysis and tracer correlations were used to study mixing and stratosphere–troposphere exchange.
Felix Ploeger, Mohamadou Diallo, Edward Charlesworth, Paul Konopka, Bernard Legras, Johannes C. Laube, Jens-Uwe Grooß, Gebhard Günther, Andreas Engel, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 8393–8412, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8393-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8393-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the global stratospheric circulation (Brewer–Dobson circulation) in the new ECMWF ERA5 reanalysis based on age of air simulations, and we compare it to results from the preceding ERA-Interim reanalysis. Our results show a slower stratospheric circulation and higher age for ERA5. The age of air trend in ERA5 over the 1989–2018 period is negative throughout the stratosphere, related to multi-annual variability and a potential contribution from changes in the reanalysis system.
Mohamadou Diallo, Manfred Ern, and Felix Ploeger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7515–7544, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7515-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7515-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Despite good agreement in the spatial structure, there are substantial differences in the strength of the Brewer–Dobson circulation (BDC) and its modulations in the UTLS and upper stratosphere. The tropical upwelling is generally weaker in ERA5 than in ERAI due to weaker planetary and gravity wave breaking in the UTLS. Analysis of the BDC trend shows an acceleration of the BDC of about 1.5 % decade-1 due to the long-term intensification in wave breaking, consistent with climate predictions.
Irene Bartolome Garcia, Reinhold Spang, Jörn Ungermann, Sabine Griessbach, Martina Krämer, Michael Höpfner, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 3153–3168, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3153-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3153-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Cirrus clouds contribute to the general radiation budget of the Earth. Measuring optically thin clouds is challenging but the IR limb sounder GLORIA possesses the necessary technical characteristics to make it possible. This study analyses data from the WISE campaign obtained with GLORIA. We developed a cloud detection method and derived characteristics of the observed cirrus-like cloud top, cloud bottom or position with respect to the tropopause.
Jörn Ungermann, Irene Bartolome, Sabine Griessbach, Reinhold Spang, Christian Rolf, Martina Krämer, Michael Höpfner, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 7025–7045, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-7025-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-7025-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines the potential of new IR limb imager instruments and tomographic methods for cloud detection purposes. Simple color-ratio-based methods are examined and compared against more involved nonlinear convex optimization. In a second part, 3-D measurements of the airborne limb sounder GLORIA taken during the Wave-driven ISentropic Exchange campaign are used to exemplarily derive the location and extent of small-scale cirrus clouds with high spatial accuracy.
Sabine Wüst, Michael Bittner, Jeng-Hwa Yee, Martin G. Mlynczak, and James M. Russell III
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 6067–6093, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-6067-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-6067-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
With airglow spectrometers, the temperature in the upper mesosphere/lower thermosphere can be derived each night. The data allow to estimate the amount of energy which is transported by small-scale atmospheric waves, known as gravity waves. In order to do this, information about the Brunt–Väisälä frequency and its evolution during the year is necessary. This is provided here for low and midlatitudes based on 18 years of satellite data.
Martina Krämer, Christian Rolf, Nicole Spelten, Armin Afchine, David Fahey, Eric Jensen, Sergey Khaykin, Thomas Kuhn, Paul Lawson, Alexey Lykov, Laura L. Pan, Martin Riese, Andrew Rollins, Fred Stroh, Troy Thornberry, Veronika Wolf, Sarah Woods, Peter Spichtinger, Johannes Quaas, and Odran Sourdeval
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 12569–12608, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12569-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12569-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
To improve the representations of cirrus clouds in climate predictions, extended knowledge of their properties and geographical distribution is required. This study presents extensive airborne in situ and satellite remote sensing climatologies of cirrus and humidity, which serve as a guide to cirrus clouds. Further, exemplary radiative characteristics of cirrus types and also in situ observations of tropical tropopause layer cirrus and humidity in the Asian monsoon anticyclone are shown.
Isabell Krisch, Manfred Ern, Lars Hoffmann, Peter Preusse, Cornelia Strube, Jörn Ungermann, Wolfgang Woiwode, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 11469–11490, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11469-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11469-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In 2016, a scientific research flight above Scandinavia acquired various atmospheric data (temperature, gas composition, etc.). Through advanced 3-D reconstruction methods, a superposition of multiple gravity waves was identified. An in-depth analysis enabled the characterisation of these waves as well as the identification of their sources. This work will enable a better understanding of atmosphere dynamics and could lead to improved climate projections.
Cornelia Strube, Manfred Ern, Peter Preusse, and Martin Riese
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 4927–4945, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-4927-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-4927-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We present how inertial instabilities affect gravity wave background removal filters on different temperature data sets. Vertical filtering has to remove a part of the gravity wave spectrum to eliminate inertial instability remnants, while horizontal filtering leaves typical gravity wave scales untouched. In addition, we show that it is possible to separate inertial instabilities from gravity wave perturbations for infrared limb-sounding satellite profiles using a cutoff zonal wavenumber of 6.
Cited articles
Alexander, M. J.: Global and seasonal variations in three-dimensional gravity wave momentum flux from satellite limb-sounding temperatures, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 6860–6867, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL065234, 2015. a
Alexander, M. J., Geller, M., McLandress, C., Polavarapu, S., Preusse, P., Sassi, F., Sato, K., Eckermann, S. D., Ern, M., Hertzog, A., Kawatani, Y., Pulido, M., Shaw, T., Sigmond, M., Vincent, R., and Watanabe, S.: Recent developments in gravity-wave effects in climate models and the global distribution of gravity-wave momentum flux from observations and models, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 136, 1103–1124, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.637, 2010. a
Anstey, J. A. and Shepherd, T. G.: High-latitude influence of the quasi-biennial oscillation, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 140, 1–21, 2014. a
Antonita, T. M., Ramkumar, G., Kishore Kumar, K., Appu, K. S., and Namboothiri, K. V. S.: A quantitative study on the role of gravity waves in driving the tropical Stratospheric Semiannual Oscillation, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D12115, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD008250, 2007. a, b
Baldwin, M. P., Gray, L. J., Dunkerton, T. J., Hamilton, K., Haynes, P. H., Randel, W. J., Holton, J. R., Alexander, M. J., Hirota, I., Horinouchi, T., Jones, D. B. A., Kinnersley, J. S., Marquardt, C., Sato, K., and Takahashi, M.: The quasi-biennial oscillation, Rev. Geophys., 39, 179–229, 2001. a, b, c
Baron, P., Murtagh, D. P., Urban, J., Sagawa, H., Ochiai, S., Kasai, Y., Kikuchi, K., Khosrawi, F., Körnich, H., Mizobuchi, S., Sagi, K., and Yasui, M.: Observation of horizontal winds in the middle-atmosphere between 30∘ S and 55∘ N during the northern winter 2009–2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 6049–6064, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-6049-2013, 2013. a, b, c
Becker, E. and Vadas, S. L.: Secondary gravity waves in the winter mesosphere: Results from a high-resolution global circulation model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 123, 2605–2627, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027460, 2018. a
Beres, J. H., Garcia, R. R., Boville, B. A., and Sassi, F.: Implementation of a gravity wave source spectrum parameterization dependent on the properties of convection in the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM), J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10108, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005504, 2005. a, b, c
Chen, D., Strube, C., Ern, M., Preusse, P., and Riese, M.: Global analysis for periodic variations in gravity wave squared amplitudes and momentum fluxes in the middle atmosphere, Ann. Geophys., 37, 487–506, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-37-487-2019, 2019. a
Day, K. A. and Mitchell, N. J.: Mean winds in the MLT, the SQBO and MSAO over Ascension Island (8∘ S, 14∘ W), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 9515–9523, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-9515-2013, 2013. a
Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M. A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A. C. M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A. J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S. B., Hersbach, H., Holm, E. V., Isaksen, L., Kallberg, P., Koehler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A. P., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de Rosnay, P., Tavolato, C., Thepaut, J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 553–597, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828, 2011 (data available at: https://apps.ecmwf.int/archive-catalogue/?class=ei, last access: 7 September 2021). a, b
Deepa, V., Ramkumar, G., and Krishna Murthy, B. V.: Gravity waves observed from the Equatorial Wave Studies (EWS) campaign during 1999 and 2000 and their role in the generation of stratospheric semiannual oscillations, Ann. Geophys., 24, 2481–2491, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-24-2481-2006, 2006. a, b
Delisi, D. P. and Dunkerton, T. J.: Equatorial semiannual oscillation in zonally averaged temperature observed by the Nimbus 7 SAMS and LIMS, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 3899–3904, 1988a. a
Delisi, D. P. and Dunkerton, T. J.: Seasonal variation of the semiannual oscillation, J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 2772–2787, 1988b. a
Dhadly, M. S., Emmert, J. T., Drob, D. P., McCormack, J. P., and Niciejewski, R.: Short-term and interannual variations of migrating diurnal and semidiurnal tides in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 123, 7106–7123, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA025748, 2018. a, b
Dunkerton, T. J.: The role of gravity waves in the quasi-biennial oscillation, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 26053–26076, 1997. a
Ebdon, R. A.: The quasi-biennial oscillation and its association with tropospheric circulation patterns, Meteorol. Mag., 104, 282–297, 1975. a
England, S. L., Dobbin, A., Harris, M. J., Arnold, N. F., and Aylward, A. D.: A study into the effects of gravity wave activity on the diurnal tide and airglow emissions in the equatorial mesosphere and lower thermosphere using the Coupled Middle Atmosphere and Thermosphere (CMAT) general circulation model, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy., 68, 293–308, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2005.05.006, 2006. a
Ern, M., Preusse, P., Alexander, M. J., and Warner, C. D.: Absolute values of gravity wave momentum flux derived from satellite data, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D20103, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD004752, 2004. a, b, c
Ern, M., Preusse, P., Krebsbach, M., Mlynczak, M. G., and Russell III, J. M.: Equatorial wave analysis from SABER and ECMWF temperatures, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 845–869, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-845-2008, 2008. a
Ern, M., Lehmann, C., Kaufmann, M., and Riese, M.: Spectral wave analysis at the mesopause from SCIAMACHY airglow data compared to SABER temperature spectra, Ann. Geophys., 27, 407–416, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-27-407-2009, 2009. a
Ern, M., Preusse, P., Gille, J. C., Hepplewhite, C. L., Mlynczak, M. G., Russell III, J. M., and Riese, M.: Implications for atmospheric dynamics derived from global observations of gravity wave momentum flux in stratosphere and mesosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D19107, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD015821, 2011. a, b
Ern, M., Preusse, P., Kalisch, S., Kaufmann, M., and Riese, M.: Role of gravity waves in the forcing of quasi two-day waves in the mesosphere: An observational study, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 3467–3485, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JD018208, 2013. a, b, c, d
Ern, M., Trinh, Q. T., Kaufmann, M., Krisch, I., Preusse, P., Ungermann, J., Zhu, Y., Gille, J. C., Mlynczak, M. G., Russell III, J. M., Schwartz, M. J., and Riese, M.: Satellite observations of middle atmosphere gravity wave absolute momentum flux and of its vertical gradient during recent stratospheric warmings, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 9983–10019, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-9983-2016, 2016. a, b
Ern, M., Hoffmann, L., and Preusse, P.: Directional gravity wave momentum fluxes in the stratosphere derived from high-resolution AIRS temperature data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 475–485, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072007, 2017. a, b, c, d
Ern, M., Trinh, Q. T., Preusse, P., Gille, J. C., Mlynczak, M. G., Russell III, J. M., and Riese, M.: GRACILE: a comprehensive climatology of atmospheric gravity wave parameters based on satellite limb soundings, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 857–892, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-857-2018, 2018. a, b, c, d, e, f
Fujiwara, M., Wright, J. S., Manney, G. L., Gray, L. J., Anstey, J., Birner, T., Davis, S., Gerber, E. P., Harvey, V. L., Hegglin, M. I., Homeyer, C. R., Knox, J. A., Krüger, K., Lambert, A., Long, C. S., Martineau, P., Molod, A., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Santee, M. L., Tegtmeier, S., Chabrillat, S., Tan, D. G. H., Jackson, D. R., Polavarapu, S., Compo, G. P., Dragani, R., Ebisuzaki, W., Harada, Y., Kobayashi, C., McCarty, W., Onogi, K., Pawson, S., Simmons, A., Wargan, K., Whitaker, J. S., and Zou, C.-Z.: Introduction to the SPARC Reanalysis Intercomparison Project (S-RIP) and overview of the reanalysis systems, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 1417–1452, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-1417-2017, 2017. a
Fritts, D. C. and Alexander, M. J.: Gravity wave dynamics and effects in the middle atmosphere, Rev. Geophys., 41, 1003, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001RG000106, 2003. a, b
Fritts, D. C. and Vincent, R. A.: Mesospheric momentum flux studies at Adelaide, Australia: observations and a gravity wave–tidal interaction model, J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 605–619, 1987. a
Fritts, D. C., Garten, J. F., Riggin, D. M., Goldberg, R. A., Lehmacher, G. A., Schmidlin, F. J., McCarthy, S., Kudeki, E., Fawcett, C. D., Hitchman, M. H., Lieberman, R. S., Reid, I. M., and Vincent, R. A.: Equatorial dynamics observed by rocket, radar, and satellite during the CADRE/MALTED campaign, 2. Mean and wave structures, coherence, and variability, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 26191–26216, 1997. a
Garcia, R. R. and Clancy, R. T.: Seasonal variation in equatorial mesospheric temperature observed by SME, J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1666–1673, 1990. a
Garcia, R. R. and Sassi, F.: Modulation of the mesospheric semiannual oscillation by the quasibiennial oscillation, Earth Planets Space, 51, 563–569, 1999. a
Garcia, R. R., Lieberman, R., Russell III, J. M., and Mlynczak, M. G.: Large-scale waves in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere observed by SABER, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 4384–4399, 2005. a
GATS Inc.: SABER Level 2A data (version 2), GATS Inc. [data set], Newport News, VA, USA, available at: http://saber.gats-inc.com/browse_data.php, last access: 7 September 2021. a
Gelaro, R., McCarty, W., Suarez, M. J., Todling, R., Molod, A., Takacs, L., Randles, C., Darmenov, A., Bosilovich, M. G., Reichle, R., Wargan, K., Coy, L., Cullather, R., Draper, C., Akella, S., Buchard, V., Conaty, A., da Silva, A., Gu, W., Kim, G.-K., Koster, R., Lucchesi, R., Merkova, D., Nielsen, J. E., Partyka, G., Pawson, S., Putman, W., Rienecker, M., Schubert, S. D., Sienkiewicz, M., and Zhao, B.: The Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2), J. Climate, 30, 5419–5454, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0758.1, 2017. a
Geller, M. A., Alexander, M. J., Love, P. T., Bacmeister, J., Ern, M., Hertzog, A., Manzini, E., Preusse, P., Sato, K., Scaife, A. A., and Zhou, T.: A comparison between gravity wave momentum fluxes in observations and climate models, J. Climate, 26, 6383–6405, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00545.1, 2013. a
Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO): MERRA-2 inst3_3d_asm_Nv: 3d, 3-Hourly, Instantaneous, Model-Level, Assimilation, Assimilated Meteorological Fields V5.12.4, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC) [data set], Greenbelt, MD, USA, https://doi.org/10.5067/WWQSXQ8IVFW8, 2015a. a, b
Global Modeling and Assimilation Office (GMAO): MERRA-2 tavg3_3d_udt_Np: 3d, 3-Hourly, Time-Averaged, Pressure-Level, Assimilation, Wind Tendencies V5.12.4, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC) [data set], Greenbelt, MD, USA, https://doi.org/10.5067/CWV0G3PPPWFW, 2015b. a, b
Gray, L. J., Brown, M. J., Knight, J., Andrews, M., Lu, H., O'Reilly, C., and Anstey, J.: Forecasting extreme stratospheric polar vortex events, Nat. Commun., 11, 4630, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-18299-7, 2020. a
Groves, G. V.: Annual and semiannual zonal wind components and corresponding temperature and density variations, 60–130 km, Planet. Space Sci., 20, 2099–2112, 1972. a
Gumbel, J., Megner, L., Christensen, O. M., Ivchenko, N., Murtagh, D. P., Chang, S., Dillner, J., Ekebrand, T., Giono, G., Hammar, A., Hedin, J., Karlsson, B., Krus, M., Li, A., McCallion, S., Olentšenko, G., Pak, S., Park, W., Rouse, J., Stegman, J., and Witt, G.: The MATS satellite mission – gravity wave studies by Mesospheric Airglow/Aerosol Tomography and Spectroscopy, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 431–455, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-431-2020, 2020. a
Gurubaran, S. and Rajaram, R.: Mean winds, tides, and gravity waves during the westward phase of the mesopause semiannual oscillation (MSAO), J. Geophys. Res., 106, 31817–31824, 2001. a
Hersbach, H. and Dee, D.: ERA5 reanalysis is in production, ECMWF Newsletter, Vol. 147, 7, available at: https://www.ecmwf.int/en/newsletter/147/news/era5-reanalysis-production (last access: 1 March 2021), 2016. a
Hersbach, H., de Rosnay, P., Bell, B., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Alonso Balmaseda, M., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Berrisford, P., Bidlot, J., de Boisséson, E., Bonavita, M., Browne, P., Buizza, R., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Dragani, R., Diamantakis, M., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Geer, A., Haiden, T., Hólm, E., Haimberger, L., Hogan, R., Horányi, A., Janisková, M., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Richardson, D., Thépaut, J.-N., Vitart, F., Yang, X., Zsótér, E., and Zuo, H.: Operational global reanalysis: progress, future directions and synergies with NWP, ERA Report Series, 27, 1–63, https://doi.org/10.21957/tkic6g3wm, 2018 (data available at: https://apps.ecmwf.int/data-catalogues/era5/?class=ea, last access: 7 September 2021). a, b, c, d, e, f
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Paul, B., András, H., Sabater, J. M., Nicolas, J., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., and Dee, D.: Global reanalysis: goodbye ERA-Interim, hello ERA-5, ECMWF Newsletter, No. 159, 17–24, https://doi.org/10.21957/vf291hehd7, 2019. a
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Munoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., de Chiara, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee, D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan, R. J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Lupu, C., Radnoti, G., de Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut, J.-N.: The ERA5 Global Reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020. a
Hirota, I.: Equatorial waves in the upper stratosphere and mesosphere in relation to the semiannual oscillation of the zonal wind, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 714–722, 1978. a
Hirota, I.: Observational evidence of the semiannual oscillation in the tropical middle atmosphere – A review, Pure Appl. Geophys., 118, 217–238, 1980. a
Holton, J. R.: The generation of mesospheric planetary waves by zonally asymmetric gravity wave breaking, J. Atmos. Sci., 41, 3427–3430, 1984. a
Holton, J. R. and Tan, H.-C.: The influence of the equatorial quasi-biennial oscillation on the global circulation at 50 mb, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2200–2208, 1980. a
Huang, F. T., Mayr, H. G., Reber, C. A., Russell III, J. M., Mlynczak, M. G., and Mengel, J. G.: Ozone quasi-biennial oscillations (QBO), semiannual oscillations (SAO), and correlations with temperature in the mesosphere, lower thermosphere, and stratosphere, based on measurements from SABER on TIMED and MLS on UARS, J. Geophys. Res., 113, A01316, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JA012634, 2008. a, b
Iwasaki, T., Yamada, S., and Tada, K.: A parameterization scheme of orographic gravity wave drag with the different vertical partitionings, Part I: Impact on medium range forecasts, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 67, 11–27, 1989a. a
Iwasaki, T., Yamada, S., and Tada, K.: A parameterization scheme of orographic gravity wave drag with the different vertical partitionings, Part II: Zonally averaged budget analyses based on transformed Eulerian-mean method, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 67, 29–41, 1989b. a
Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA): JRA-55: Japanese 55-year Reanalysis, Daily 3-Hourly and 6-Hourly Data, updated monthly, Research Data Archive at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Computational and Information Systems Laboratory [data set], https://doi.org/10.5065/D6HH6H41, 2013. a
Jewtoukoff, V., Hertzog, A., Plougonven, R., de la Camara, A., and Lott, F.: Comparison of gravity waves in the southern hemisphere derived from balloon observations and the ECMWF analyses, J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 3449–3468, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0324.1, 2015. a
Kang, M.-J., Chun, H.-Y., Kim, Y.-H., Preusse, P., and Ern, M.: Momentum flux of convective gravity waves derived from an offline gravity wave parameterization. Part II: Impacts on the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation, J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 3753–3775, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0094.1, 2018. a, b
Kawatani, Y., Hirooka, T., Hamilton, K., Smith, A. K., and Fujiwara, M.: Representation of the equatorial stratopause semiannual oscillation in global atmospheric reanalyses, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 9115–9133, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-9115-2020, 2020. a
Kidston, J., Scaife, A. A., Hardiman, S. C., Mitchell, D. M., Butchart, N., Baldwin, M. P., and Gray, L. J.: Stratospheric influence on tropospheric jet streams, storm tracks and surface weather, Nat. Geosci., 8, 433–440, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO2424, 2015. a
Killeen, T. L., Wu, Q., Solomon, S. C., Ortland, D. A., Skinner, W. R.,
Niciejewski, R. J., and Gell, D. A.: TIMED Doppler Interferometer: Overview
and recent results, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A10S01,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JA011484, 2006. a
Kim, Y.-H., Bushell, A. C., Jackson, D. R., and Chun, H.-Y.: Impacts of introducing a convective gravity-wave parameterization upon the QBO in the Met Office Unified Model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 1873–1877, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50353, 2013. a
Kim, Y.-J., Eckermann, S. D., and Chun, H.-Y.: An overview of the past, present and future of gravity-wave drag parameterization for numerical climate and weather prediction models – Survey article, Atmos. Ocean, 41, 65–98, https://doi.org/10.3137/ao.410105, 2003. a
Kishore Kumar, G., Kishore Kumar, K., Singer, W., Zülicke, C., Gurubaran, S., Baumgarten, G., Ramkumar, G., Sathishkumar, S., and Rapp, M.: Mesosphere and lower thermosphere zonal wind variations over low latitudes: Relation to local stratospheric zonal winds and global circulation anomalies, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 5913–5927, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021610, 2014. a
Kobayashi, S., Ota, Y., Harada, Y., Ebita, A., Moriya, M., Onoda, H., Onogi, K., Kamahori, H., Kobayashi, C., Endo, H., Miyaoka, K., and Takahashi, K.: The JRA-55 Reanalysis: General Specifications and Basic Characteristics, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 93, 5–48, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2015-001, 2015. a
Kovalam, S., Vincent, R. A., and Love, P.: Gravity waves in the equatorial MLT region, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy., 68, 266–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2005.05.009, 2006. a
Krebsbach, M., and Preusse, P.: Spectral analysis of gravity wave activity in SABER temperature data, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L03814, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL028040, 2007. a
Krismer, T. R., Giorgetta, M. A., and Esch, M.: Seasonal aspects of the quasi-biennial oscillation in the Max Planck Institute Earth System Model and ERA-40, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 5, 406–421, https://doi.org/10.1002/jame.20024, 2013. a
Kuai, L., Shia, R.-L., Jiang, X., Tung, K.-K., and Yung, Y. L.: Nonstationary synchronization of equatorial QBO with SAO in observations and a model, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 1654–1664, 2009. a
Kumar, K. K., Swain, D., John, S. R., and Ramkumar, G.: Simultaneous observations of SAO and QBO in winds, temperature and ozone in the tropical middle atmosphere over Thumba (8.5N, 77E), Clim. Dynam., 37, 1961–1973, 2011. a
Lieberman, R. S., Burrage, M. D., Gell, D. A., Hays, P. B., Marshall, A. R., Ortland, D. A., Skinner, W. R., Wu, D. L., Vincent, R. A., and Franke, S. J.: Zonal mean winds in the equatorial mesosphere and lower thermosphere observed by the High Resolution Doppler Imager, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 2849–2852, 1993. a
Lieberman, R. S., Riggin, D. M., Garcia, R. R., Wu, Q., and Remsberg, E. E.: Observations of intermediate-scale diurnal waves in the equatorial mesosphere and lower thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A10S11, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JA011498, 2006. a
Lieberman, R. S., Ortland, D. A., Riggin, D. M., Wu, Q., and Jacobi, C.: Momentum budget of the migrating diurnal tide in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D20105, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013684, 2010. a, b
Lindzen, R. S.: Turbulence and stress owing to gravity wave and tidal breakdown, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 9707–9714, 1981. a
Lindzen, R. S.: On the development of the theory of the QBO, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 68, 329–337, 1987. a
Lindzen, R. S. and Holton, J. R.: A theory of the quasi-biennial oscillation, J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 1095–1107, 1968. a
Liu, X., Xu, J., Yue, J., Liu, H. L., and Yuan, W.: Large winds and wind shears caused by the nonlinear interactions between gravity waves and tidal backgrounds in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 119, 7698–7708, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JA020221, 2014. a
Livesey, N. J., Read, W. G., Wagner, P. A., Froidevaux, L., Lambert, A., Manney, G. L., Millan Valle, L. F., Pumphrey, H. C., Santee, M. L., Schwartz, M. J., Wang, S., Fuller, R. A., Jarnot, R. F., Knosp, B. W., Martinez, E., and Ray, R.: Earth Observing System (EOS) Aura Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) Version 4.2x Level 2 data quality and description document, Version 4.2x-3.1, Tech. Rep. JPL D-33509 Rev. D, Jet Propulsion Lab., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91109-8099, 1–169, 2017. a
Marshall, A. G. and Scaife, A. A.: Impact of the QBO on surface winter climate, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D18110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD011737, 2009. a
Martineau, P., Wright, J. S., Zhu, N., and Fujiwara, M.: Zonal-mean data set of global atmospheric reanalyses on pressure levels, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 1925–1941, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-10-1925-2018, 2018. a
Matsumoto, N., Shinbori, A., Riggin, D. M., and Tsuda, T.: Measurement of momentum flux using two meteor radars in Indonesia, Ann. Geophys., 34, 369–377, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-34-369-2016, 2016. a, b
Matthias, V. and Ern, M.: On the origin of the mesospheric quasi-stationary planetary waves in the unusual Arctic winter 2015/2016, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 4803–4815, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-4803-2018, 2018. a, b
Mayr, H. G., Mengel, J. G., Chan, K. L., and Porter, H. S.: Mesosphere dynamics with gravity wave forcing: Part I. Diurnal and semi-diurnal tides, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy., 63, 1851–1864, 2001. a
McFarlane, N. A.: The effect of orographically excited gravity-wave drag on the circulation of the lower stratosphere and troposphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1775–1800, 1987. a
McLandress, C.: The Seasonal Variation of the Propagating Diurnal Tide in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere. Part I: The Role of Gravity Waves and Planetary Waves, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 893–906, 2002. a
Mlynczak, M. G.: Energetics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere and the SABER instrument, Adv. Space Res., 44, 1177–1183, 1997. a
NASA GES DISC: The MLS Level 2 geopotential height product (version 4.2), NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center [data set], available at: https://acdisc.gesdisc.eosdis.nasa.gov/data/Aura_MLS_Level2/ML2GPH.004/, last access: 7 September 2021a. a
NASA GES DISC: The MLS Level 2 temperature product (version 4.2), NASA Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center [data set], available at: https://acdisc.gesdisc.eosdis.nasa.gov/data/Aura_MLS_Level2/ML2T.004/, last access: 7 September 2021b. a
NCAR HAO: The TIDI vector wind product (version 03.07a), NCAR High Altitude Observatory [data set], available at: http://download.hao.ucar.edu/archive/tidi/data/vec0307a/, last access: 7 September 2021. a
Niciejewski, R., Wu, Q., Skinner, W., Gell, D., Cooper, M., Marshall, A., Killeen, T., Solomon, S., and Ortland, D.: TIMED Doppler Interferometer on the Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics satellite: Data product overview, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A11S90, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JA011513, 2006. a
Oberheide, J., Lehmacher, G. A., Offermann, D., Grossmann, K. U., Manson, A. H., Meek, C. E., Schmidlin, F. J., Singer, W., Hoffmann, P., and Vincent, R. A.: Geostrophic wind fields in the stratosphere and mesosphere from satellite data, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 8175, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD000655, 2002. a, b
Oberheide, J., Wu, Q., Killeen, T. L., Hagan, M. E., and Roble, R. G.: Diurnal nonmigrating tides from TIMED Doppler Interferometer wind data: Monthly climatologies and seasonal variations, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A10S03, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JA011491, 2006. a
Orr, A., Bechtold, P., Scinocca, J. F., Ern, M., and Janiskova, M.: Improved middle atmosphere climate and forecasts in the ECMWF model through a nonorographic gravity wave drag parameterization, J. Climate, 23, 5905–5926, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3490.1, 2010. a, b
Ortland, D. A. and Alexander, M. J.: Gravity wave influence on the global structure of the diurnal tide in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A10S10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JA011467, 2006. a
Osprey, S. M., Gray, L. J., Hardiman, S. C., Butchart, N., Bushell, A. C., and Hinton, T. J.: The climatology of the middle atmosphere in a vertically extended version of the Met Office's climate model. Part II: Variability, J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 3637–3651, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAS3338.1, 2010. a, b
Palo, S. E. and Avery, S. K.: Mean winds and the semiannual oscillation in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere at Christmas Island, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 20385–20400, 1993. a
Pascoe, C. L., Gray, L. J., and Scaife, A. A.: A GCM study of the influence of equatorial winds on the timing of sudden stratospheric warmings, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L06825, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024715, 2006. a
Preusse, P., Eckermann, S. D., Oberheide, J., Hagan, M. E., and Offermann, D.: Modulation of gravity waves by tides as seen in CRISTA temperatures, Adv. Space Res., 27, 1773–1778, 2001. a
Preusse, P., Dörnbrack, A., Eckermann, S. D., Riese, M., Schaeler, B., Bacmeister, J. T., Broutman, D., and Grossmann, K. U.: Space-based measurements of stratospheric mountain waves by CRISTA, 1. Sensitivity, analysis method, and a case study, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 8178, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD000699, 2002. a, b
Preusse, P., Schroeder, S., Hoffmann, L., Ern, M., Friedl-Vallon, F., Ungermann, J., Oelhaf, H., Fischer, H., and Riese, M.: New perspectives on gravity wave remote sensing by spaceborne infrared limb imaging, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 2, 299–311, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2-299-2009, 2009. a
Preusse, P., Ern, M., Bechtold, P., Eckermann, S. D., Kalisch, S., Trinh, Q. T., and Riese, M.: Characteristics of gravity waves resolved by ECMWF, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 10483–10508, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-10483-2014, 2014. a, b
Randel, W., Udelhofen, P., Fleming, E., Geller, M., Gelman, M., Hamilton, K., Karoly, D., Ortland, D., Pawson, S., Swinbank, R., Wu, F., Baldwin, M., Chanin, M.-L., Keckhut, P., Labitzke, K., Remsberg, E., Simmons, A., and Wu, D. L.: The SPARC intercomparison of middle-atmosphere climatologies, J. Climate, 17, 986–1003, 2004. a, b, c, d
Rapp, M., Dornbrack, A., and Preusse, P.: Large midlatitude stratospheric temperature variability caused by inertial instability: A potential source of bias for gravity wave climatologies, Geophys. Res. Lett., 45, 10682–10690, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL079142, 2018. a
Reed, R. J.: Some features of the annual temperature regime in the tropical stratosphere, Mon. Weather Rev., 90, 211–215, 1962. a
Reed, R. J.: Zonal wind behavior in the equatorial stratosphere and lower mesosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 71, 4223–4233, 1966. a
Remsberg, E. E., Gordley, L. L., Marshall, B. T., Thompson, R. E., Burton, J., Bhatt, P., Harvey, V. L., Lingenfelser, G., and Natarajan, M.: The Nimbus 7 LIMS version 6 radiance conditioning and temperature retrieval methods and results, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Ra., 86, 395–424, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2003.12.007, 2004. a
Remsberg, E. E., Marshall, B. T., Garcia-Comas, M., Krueger, D., Lingenfelser, G. S., Martin-Torres, J., Mlynczak, M. G., Russell III, J. M., Smith, A. K., Zhao, Y., Brown, C., Gordley, L. L., Lopez-Gonzalez, M. J., Lopez-Puertas, M., She, C.-Y., Taylor, M. J., and Thompson, R. E.: Assessment of the quality of the Version 1.07 temperature-versus-pressure profiles of the middle atmosphere from TIMED/SABER, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D17101, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010013, 2008. a
Ribstein, B. and Achatz, U.: The interaction between gravity waves and solar tides in a linear tidal model with a 4-D ray-tracing gravity-wave parameterization, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 121, 8936–8950, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JA022478, 2016. a
Russell III, J. M., Mlynczak, M. G., Gordley, L. L., Tansock, J., and Esplin, R.: An overview of the SABER experiment and preliminary calibration results, Proc. SPIE, 3756, 277–288, 1999. a
Sandu, I., Beljaars, A., Bechtold, P., Mauritsen, T., and Balsamo, G.: Why is it so difficult to represent stably stratified conditions in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models?, J. Adv. Model. Earth Sy., 5, 117–133, https://doi.org/10.1002/jame.20013, 2013. a
Sassi, F. and Garcia, R. R.: The role of equatorial waves forced by convection in the tropical semi-annual oscillation, J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 1925–1942, 1997. a
Sato, K., Yasui, R., and Miyoshi, Y.: The momentum budget in the stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere. Part I: contributions of different wave types and in situ generation of Rossby waves, J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 3613–3633, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-17-0336.1, 2018. a
Scaife, A. A., Athanassiadou, M., Andrews, M., Arribas, A., Bald- win, M., Dunstone, N., Knight, J., MacLachlan, C., Manzini, E., Müller, W. A., Pohlmann, H., Smith, D., Stockdale, T., and Williams, A.: Predictability of the quasi-biennial oscillation and its northern winter teleconnection on seasonal to decadal timescales, Geophys. Res. Lett., 41, 1752–1758, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL059160, 2014. a
Schroeder, S., Preusse, P., Ern, M., and Riese, M.: Gravity waves resolved in ECMWF and measured by SABER, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L10805, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL037054, 2009. a
Schwartz, M. J., Lambert, A., Manney, G. L., Read, W. G., Livesey, N. J., Froidevaux, L., Ao, C. O., Bernath, P. F., Boone, C. D., Cofield, R. E., Daffer, W. H., Drouin, B. J., Fetzer, E. J., Fuller, R. A., Jarnot, R. F., Jiang, J. H., Jiang, Y. B., Knosp, B. W., Krüger, K., Li, J.-L. F., Mlynczak, M. G., Pawson, S., Russell III, J. M., Santee, M. L., Snyder, W. V., Stek, P. C., Thurstans, R. P., Tompkins, A. M., Wagner, P. A., Walker, K. A., Waters, J. W., and Wu, D. L.: Validation of the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder temperature and geopotential height measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D15S11, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JD008783, 2008. a
Shepherd, T. G., Polichtchouk, I., Hogan, R. J., and Simmons, A. J.: Report on Stratosphere Task Force, ECMWF Technical Memorandum, 824, 1–32, https://doi.org/10.21957/0vkp0t1xx, 2018. a, b
Shu, J., Tian, W., Hu, D., Zhang, J., Shang, L., Tian, H., and Xie, F.: Effects of the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation and Stratospheric Semiannual Oscillation on tracer transport in the upper stratosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 1370–1389, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-053.1, 2013. a
Simmons, A., Soci, C., Nicolas, J., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hersbach, H., Horányi, A., Inness, A., Munoz-Sabater, J., Radu, R., and Schepers, D.: Global stratospheric temperature bias and other stratospheric aspects of ERA5 and ERA5.1, ECMWF Technical Memorandum, 859, 1–38, https://doi.org/10.21957/rcxqfmg0, 2020. a
Smith, A. K.: The origin of stationary planetary waves in the upper mesosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 3033–3041, 2003. a
Smith, A. K.: Global dynamics of the MLT, Surv. Geophys., 33, 1177–1230, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10712-012-9196-9, 2012. a
Smith, A. K., Holt, L. A., Garcia, R. R., Anstey, J. A., Serva, F., Butchart, N., Osprey, S., Bushell, A. C., Kawatani, Y., Kim, Y.-H., Lott, F., Braesicke, P., Cagnazzo, C., Chen, C.-C., Chun, H.-Y., Gray, L., Kerzenmacher, T., Naoe, H., Richter, J., Versick, S., Schenzinger, V., Watanabe, S., and Yoshida, K.: The equatorial stratospheric semiannual oscillation and time-mean winds in QBOi models, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3690, 2020. a, b, c, d
Song, R., Kaufmann, M., Ern, M., Ungermann, J., Liu, G., and Riese, M.: Three-dimensional tomographic reconstruction of atmospheric gravity waves in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT), Atmos. Meas. Tech., 11, 3161–3175, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-11-3161-2018, 2018. a
SPARC: Temperature and Zonal Wind Climatology, SPARC Data Centre [data set], available at: ftp://sparc-ftp1.ceda.ac.uk/sparc/ref_clim/randel/temp_wind/ (last access: 7 September 2021), 2002. a
Sridharan, S.: Seasonal variations of low-latitude migrating and nonmigrating diurnal and semidiurnal tides in TIMED-SABER temperature and their relationship with source variations, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 124, 3558–3572, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA026190, 2019. a
Sridharan, S. and Sathishkumar, S.: Seasonal and interannual variations of gravity wave activity in the low-latitude mesosphere and lower thermosphere over Tirunelveli (8.7∘ N, 77.8∘ E), Ann. Geophys., 26, 3215–3223, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-26-3215-2008, 2008. a
Strube, C., Ern, M., Preusse, P., and Riese, M.: Removing spurious inertial instability signals from gravity wave temperature perturbations using spectral filtering methods, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 4927–4945, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-4927-2020, 2020. a
Tang, Y., Dou, X., Li, T., Nakamura, T., Xue, X., Huang, C., Manson, A., Meek, C., Thorsen, D., and Avery, S.: Gravity wave characteristics in the mesopause region revealed from OH airglow imager observations over Northern Colorado, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 119, 630–645, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JA018955, 2014. a
Trinh, Q. T., Kalisch, S., Preusse, P., Chun, H.-Y., Eckermann, S. D., Ern, M., and Riese, M.: A comprehensive observational filter for satellite infrared limb sounding of gravity waves, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 1491–1517, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-1491-2015, 2015. a, b, c
Venkateswara Rao, N., Tsuda, T., and Kawatani, Y.: A remarkable correlation between short period gravity waves and semiannual oscillation of the zonal wind in the equatorial mesopause region, Ann. Geophys., 30, 703–710, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-30-703-2012, 2012. a, b
Vincent, R. A.: The dynamics of the mesosphere and lower thermosphere: a brief review, Progress in Earth and Planetary Science, 2, 4, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40645-015-0035-8, 2015. a
Warner, C. D., Scaife, A. A., and Butchart, N.: Filtering of parameterized nonorographic gravity waves in the Met Office unified model, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 1831–1848, 2005. a
Watanabe, S., Kawatani, Y., Tomikawa, Y., Miyazaki, K., Takahashi, M., and Sato, K.: General aspects of a T213L256 middle atmosphere general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D12110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD010026, 2008. a
Waters, J. W., Froidevaux, L., Harwood, R. S., Jarnot, R. F., Pickett, H. M., Read, W. G., Siegel, P. H., Cofield, R. E., Filipiak, M. J., Flower, D. A., Holden, J. R., Lau, G. K., Livesey, N. J., Manney, G. L., Pumphrey, H. C., Santee, M. L., Wu, D. L., Cuddy, D. T., Lay, R. R., Loo, M. S., Perun, V. S., Schwartz, M. J., Stek, P. C., Thurstans, R. P., Boyles, M. A., Chandra, K. M., Chavez, M. C., Chen, G.-S., Chudasama, B. V., Dodge, R., Fuller, R. A., Girard, M. A., Jiang, J. H., Jiang, Y., Knosp, B. W., LaBelle, R. C., Lam, J. C., Lee, K. A., Miller, D., Oswald, J. E., Patel, N. C., Pukala, D. M., Quintero, O., Scaff, D. M., Van Snyder, W., Tope, M. C., Wagner, P. A., and Walch, M. J.: The Earth Observing System Microwave Limb Sounder (EOS MLS) on the Aura Satellite, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 44, 1075–1092, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2006.873771, 2006. a
Wu, Q., Ortland, D. A., Solomon, S. C., Skinner, W. R., and Niciejewski, R. J.: Global distribution, seasonal, and inter-annual variations of mesospheric semidiurnal tide observed by TIMED TIDI, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phy., 73, 2482–2502, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2011.08.007, 2011. a
Zhu, Y., Kaufmann, M., Ern, M., and Riese, M.: Nighttime atomic oxygen in the mesopause region retrieved from SCIAMACHY O(1S) green line measurements and its response to solar cycle variation, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 120, 9057–9073, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JA021405, 2015. a
Short summary
Details of the driving of the semiannual oscillation (SAO) of the tropical winds in the middle atmosphere are still not known. We investigate the SAO and its driving by small-scale gravity waves (GWs) using satellite data and different reanalyses. In a large altitude range, GWs mainly drive the SAO westerlies, but in the upper mesosphere GWs seem to drive both SAO easterlies and westerlies. Reanalyses reproduce some features of the SAO but are limited by model-inherent damping at upper levels.
Details of the driving of the semiannual oscillation (SAO) of the tropical winds in the middle...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint