Articles | Volume 25, issue 12
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-6445-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-6445-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
27 Jun 2025
Research article |
| 27 Jun 2025
| 27 Jun 2025
Inverse modelling of New Zealand's carbon dioxide balance estimates a larger than expected carbon sink
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Sara Mikaloff-Fletcher
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Gordon Brailsford
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Dan Smale
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Lauder, New Zealand
Elizabeth D. Keller
GNS Science, National Isotope Centre, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
W. Troy Baisden
Te Pūnaha Matatini Centre of Research Excellence and Motu Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Miko U. F. Kirschbaum
Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Donna L. Giltrap
Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Lìyǐn Liáng
Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Stuart Moore
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Rowena Moss
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Sylvia Nichol
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Jocelyn Turnbull
GNS Science, National Isotope Centre, Lower Hutt, New Zealand
Alex Geddes
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Lauder, New Zealand
Daemon Kennett
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
Dóra Hidy
Excellence Center, Faculty of Science, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Martonvásár, Hungary
Zoltán Barcza
Department of Meteorology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
Louis A. Schipper
School of Science and Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand
Aaron M. Wall
School of Science and Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand
Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka
National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Hitoshi Mukai
National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Andrea Brandon
New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand
Related authors
Peter Sperlich, Gordon W. Brailsford, Rowena C. Moss, John McGregor, Ross J. Martin, Sylvia Nichol, Sara Mikaloff-Fletcher, Beata Bukosa, Magda Mandic, C. Ian Schipper, Paul Krummel, and Alan D. Griffiths
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 1631–1656, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1631-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1631-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We tested an in situ analyser for carbon and oxygen isotopes in atmospheric CO2 at Baring Head, New Zealand’s observatory for Southern Ocean baseline air. The analyser was able to resolve regional signals of the terrestrial carbon cycle, although the analysis of small events was limited by analytical uncertainty. Further improvement of the instrument performance would be desirable for the robust analysis of distant signals and to resolve the small variability in Southern Ocean baseline air.
Beata Bukosa, Jenny Fisher, Nicholas Deutscher, and Dylan Jones
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2021-173, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2021-173, 2021
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
Human activities led to rising levels of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO)) in the atmosphere, threatening our future. We use models and measurements to predict and understand the climatological impact of these gases. Here, we describe a new simulation in the GEOS-Chem model that uses a more accurate method to simulate CO2, CH4 and CO, through their chemical dependence. Relative to the original simulations our results agree better with measurements.
Christian Lewis, Rachel Corran, Sara E. Mikaloff-Fletcher, Erik Behrens, Rowena Moss, Gordon Brailsford, Andrew Lorrey, Margaret Norris, and Jocelyn Turnbull
Biogeosciences, 22, 4187–4201, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-4187-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-22-4187-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Southern Ocean carbon sink is a balance between two opposing forces: CO2 absorption at mid-latitudes and CO2 outgassing at high latitudes. Radiocarbon analysis can be used to constrain the latter, as upwelling waters outgas old CO2, diluting atmospheric radiocarbon content. We present tree-ring radiocarbon measurements from Aotearoa / New Zealand and Chile. We show that low radiocarbon in Aotearoa / New Zealand’s Motu Ihupuku / Campbell Island is linked to outgassing in the critical Antarctic Southern Zone.
Rafael Santana, Richard Gorman, Emily Lane, Stuart Moore, Cyprien Bosserelle, Glen Reeve, and Christo Rautenbach
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 4877–4898, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4877-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-4877-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This research explores improving wave forecasts in Aotearoa New Zealand, particularly at Banks Peninsula and Baring Head. We used detailed models and found that forecasts at Baring Head improved significantly due to its narrow geography, but changes at Banks Peninsula were minimal. The study demonstrates that local conditions greatly influence the effectiveness of wave prediction models, highlighting the need for tailored approaches in coastal forecasting to enhance accuracy in the predictions.
Olga Albot, Joshua Ratcliffe, Richard Levy, Sebastian Naeher, Daniel King, Catherine Ginnane, Jocelyn Turnbull, Mary Jill Ira Banta, Christopher Wood, Jenny Dahl, Jannine Cooper, and Andy Phillips
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2949, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2949, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Biogeosciences (BG).
Short summary
Short summary
Saltmarshes store carbon in their soils, contributing to climate change mitigation. We analysed five sites across Aotearoa New Zealand and found that carbon storage varies widely with land use and sediment inputs. Plant material was a major source of carbon in the soil and has been preserved for several centuries. Restoration increased soil carbon accumulation at two sites. These results improve national blue carbon estimates and highlight the role of saltmarshes as natural climate solutions.
Roeland Van Malderen, Anne M. Thompson, Debra E. Kollonige, Ryan M. Stauffer, Herman G. J. Smit, Eliane Maillard Barras, Corinne Vigouroux, Irina Petropavlovskikh, Thierry Leblanc, Valérie Thouret, Pawel Wolff, Peter Effertz, David W. Tarasick, Deniz Poyraz, Gérard Ancellet, Marie-Renée De Backer, Stéphanie Evan, Victoria Flood, Matthias M. Frey, James W. Hannigan, José L. Hernandez, Marco Iarlori, Bryan J. Johnson, Nicholas Jones, Rigel Kivi, Emmanuel Mahieu, Glen McConville, Katrin Müller, Tomoo Nagahama, Justus Notholt, Ankie Piters, Natalia Prats, Richard Querel, Dan Smale, Wolfgang Steinbrecht, Kimberly Strong, and Ralf Sussmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 7187–7225, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-7187-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-7187-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Tropospheric ozone is an important greenhouse gas and is an air pollutant. The time variability of tropospheric ozone is mainly driven by anthropogenic emissions. In this paper, we study the distribution and time variability of ozone from harmonized ground-based observations from five different measurement techniques. Our findings provide clear standard references for atmospheric models and evolving tropospheric ozone satellite data for the 2000–2022 period.
Yosuke Niwa, Yasunori Tohjima, Yukio Terao, Tazu Saeki, Akihiko Ito, Taku Umezawa, Kyohei Yamada, Motoki Sasakawa, Toshinobu Machida, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Hideki Nara, Hiroshi Tanimoto, Hitoshi Mukai, Yukio Yoshida, Shinji Morimoto, Shinya Takatsuji, Kazuhiro Tsuboi, Yousuke Sawa, Hidekazu Matsueda, Kentaro Ishijima, Ryo Fujita, Daisuke Goto, Xin Lan, Kenneth Schuldt, Michal Heliasz, Tobias Biermann, Lukasz Chmura, Jarsolaw Necki, Irène Xueref-Remy, and Damiano Sferlazzo
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 6757–6785, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-6757-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-6757-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study estimated regional and sectoral emission contributions to the unprecedented surge of atmospheric methane for 2020–2022. The methane is the second most important greenhouse gas, and its emissions reduction is urgently required to mitigate global warming. Numerical modeling-based estimates with three different sets of atmospheric observations consistently suggested large contributions of biogenic emissions from South Asia and Southeast Asia to the surge of atmospheric methane.
Mike Bush, David L. A. Flack, Huw W. Lewis, Sylvia I. Bohnenstengel, Chris J. Short, Charmaine Franklin, Adrian P. Lock, Martin Best, Paul Field, Anne McCabe, Kwinten Van Weverberg, Segolene Berthou, Ian Boutle, Jennifer K. Brooke, Seb Cole, Shaun Cooper, Gareth Dow, John Edwards, Anke Finnenkoetter, Kalli Furtado, Kate Halladay, Kirsty Hanley, Margaret A. Hendry, Adrian Hill, Aravindakshan Jayakumar, Richard W. Jones, Humphrey Lean, Joshua C. K. Lee, Andy Malcolm, Marion Mittermaier, Saji Mohandas, Stuart Moore, Cyril Morcrette, Rachel North, Aurore Porson, Susan Rennie, Nigel Roberts, Belinda Roux, Claudio Sanchez, Chun-Hsu Su, Simon Tucker, Simon Vosper, David Walters, James Warner, Stuart Webster, Mark Weeks, Jonathan Wilkinson, Michael Whitall, Keith D. Williams, and Hugh Zhang
Geosci. Model Dev., 18, 3819–3855, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-3819-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-18-3819-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
RAL configurations define settings for the Unified Model atmosphere and Joint UK Land Environment Simulator. The third version of the Regional Atmosphere and Land (RAL3) science configuration for kilometre- and sub-kilometre-scale modelling represents a major advance compared to previous versions (RAL2) by delivering a common science definition for applications in tropical and mid-latitude regions. RAL3 has more realistic precipitation distributions and an improved representation of clouds and visibility.
Bibhasvata Dasgupta, Malika Menoud, Carina van der Veen, Ingeborg Levin, Cora Veidt, Heiko Moossen, Sylvia Englund Michel, Peter Sperlich, Shinji Morimoto, Ryo Fujita, Taku Umezawa, Stephen Matthew Platt, Christine Groot Zwaaftink, Cathrine Lund Myhre, Rebecca Fisher, David Lowry, Euan Nisbet, James France, Ceres Woolley Maisch, Gordon Brailsford, Rowena Moss, Daisuke Goto, Sudhanshu Pandey, Sander Houweling, Nicola Warwick, and Thomas Röckmann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2439, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2439, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We combined long-term methane mole fraction and isotope measurements from eight laboratories that sample high-latitude stations to compare, offset correct and harmonise the datasets into a hemisphere merged timeseries. Because each laboratory uses slightly different methods, we adjusted the data to make it directly comparable. This allowed us to create a consistent record of atmospheric methane concentration and its isotopes from 1988 to 2023.
Ivan Ortega, James W. Hannigan, Bianca C. Baier, Kathryn McKain, and Dan Smale
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 2353–2371, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2353-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-2353-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study evaluates retrieval strategies for CH4 and N2O using high-resolution FTIR observations from Boulder, Colorado. By comparing results with independent AirCore and aircraft in situ measurements, the analysis validates retrieval accuracy and quantifies uncertainties. The findings highlight the benefits of updated spectroscopy and improved a priori profiles and highlight consistent agreement with in situ data.
Hannah E. Kessenich, Annika Seppälä, Dan Smale, Craig J. Rodger, and Mark Weber
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-873, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-873, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (ACP).
Short summary
Short summary
We use observational data to track a mass of mesospheric air which descends into the Antarctic polar vortex each spring. The altitude of the air mass at the end of October is used to create a new diagnostic metric. The metric captures the dynamical conditions of the vortex and can be used to estimate the amount of poleward ozone transport in October. When used as a proxy for October polar total column ozone, the metric explains the majority (63%) of the observed variance from 2004–2024.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Hongmei Li, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Are Olsen, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Almut Arneth, Vivek Arora, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Carla F. Berghoff, Henry C. Bittig, Laurent Bopp, Patricia Cadule, Katie Campbell, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Thomas Colligan, Jeanne Decayeux, Laique M. Djeutchouang, Xinyu Dou, Carolina Duran Rojas, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Amanda R. Fay, Richard A. Feely, Daniel J. Ford, Adrianna Foster, Thomas Gasser, Marion Gehlen, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul K. Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Xin Lan, Siv K. Lauvset, Nathalie Lefèvre, Zhu Liu, Junjie Liu, Lei Ma, Shamil Maksyutov, Gregg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Nicolas Metzl, Natalie M. Monacci, Eric J. Morgan, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Craig Neill, Yosuke Niwa, Tobias Nützel, Lea Olivier, Tsuneo Ono, Paul I. Palmer, Denis Pierrot, Zhangcai Qin, Laure Resplandy, Alizée Roobaert, Thais M. Rosan, Christian Rödenbeck, Jörg Schwinger, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Tobias Steinhoff, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Roland Séférian, Shintaro Takao, Hiroaki Tatebe, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Olivier Torres, Etienne Tourigny, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido van der Werf, Rik Wanninkhof, Xuhui Wang, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Zhen Yu, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Ning Zeng, and Jiye Zeng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 965–1039, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-965-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2024 describes the methodology, main results, and datasets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2024). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Marjolaine Verret, Sebastian Naeher, Denis Lacelle, Catherine Ginnane, Warren Dickinson, Kevin Norton, Jocelyn Turnbull, and Richard Levy
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-786, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-786, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
15 million years ago, the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica were dominated by a tundra environment. In contrast, the modern environment is amongst the coldest and driest on Earth. Using a permafrost core, this paper investigates the shift from a tundra- to a bacteria-dominated landscape. By differentiating between ancient and modern organic material, we further our understanding of preservation of ancient organic material and its response and contribution to future climate change.
Kelley C. Wells, Dylan B. Millet, Jared F. Brewer, Vivienne H. Payne, Karen E. Cady-Pereira, Rick Pernak, Susan Kulawik, Corinne Vigouroux, Nicholas Jones, Emmanuel Mahieu, Maria Makarova, Tomoo Nagahama, Ivan Ortega, Mathias Palm, Kimberly Strong, Matthias Schneider, Dan Smale, Ralf Sussmann, and Minqiang Zhou
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 695–716, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-695-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-695-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Atmospheric volatile organic compounds (VOCs) affect both air quality and climate. Satellite measurements can help us to assess and predict their global impacts. We present new decadal (2012–2023) measurements of four key VOCs – methanol, ethene, ethyne, and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) – from the Cross-track Infrared Sounder. The measurements reflect emissions from major forests, wildfires, and industry and provide new information to advance understanding of these sources and their changes over time.
Roeland Van Malderen, Zhou Zang, Kai-Lan Chang, Robin Björklund, Owen R. Cooper, Jane Liu, Eliane Maillard Barras, Corinne Vigouroux, Irina Petropavlovskikh, Thierry Leblanc, Valérie Thouret, Pawel Wolff, Peter Effertz, Audrey Gaudel, David W. Tarasick, Herman G. J. Smit, Anne M. Thompson, Ryan M. Stauffer, Debra E. Kollonige, Deniz Poyraz, Gérard Ancellet, Marie-Renée De Backer, Matthias M. Frey, James W. Hannigan, José L. Hernandez, Bryan J. Johnson, Nicholas Jones, Rigel Kivi, Emmanuel Mahieu, Isamu Morino, Glen McConville, Katrin Müller, Isao Murata, Justus Notholt, Ankie Piters, Maxime Prignon, Richard Querel, Vincenzo Rizi, Dan Smale, Wolfgang Steinbrecht, Kimberly Strong, and Ralf Sussmann
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3745, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3745, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Tropospheric ozone is an important greenhouse gas and an air pollutant, whose distribution and time variability is mainly governed by anthropogenic emissions and dynamics. In this paper, we assess regional trends of tropospheric ozone column amounts, based on two different approaches of merging or synthesizing ground-based observations and their trends within specific regions. Our findings clearly demonstrate regional trend differences, but also consistently higher pre- than post-COVID trends.
Tatsuki Tokoro, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Shintaro Takao, Shu Saito, Daisuke Sasano, Kazutaka Enyo, Masao Ishii, Naohiro Kosugi, Tsuneo Ono, Kazuaki Tadokoro, and Yukihiro Nojiri
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3792, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3792, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how landwater from the mainland of Japan affects the ocean's carbon cycle using decades of Total Alkalinity (TA) data from the Northwest Pacific. Statistical analysis revealed landwater as a major TA source, reducing coastal acidification by 65 %, but with minimal impact on atmospheric CO2 absorption. Future work aims to refine results with depth-specific data and apply findings to global models.
Robin Björklund, Corinne Vigouroux, Peter Effertz, Omaira E. García, Alex Geddes, James Hannigan, Koji Miyagawa, Michael Kotkamp, Bavo Langerock, Gerald Nedoluha, Ivan Ortega, Irina Petropavlovskikh, Deniz Poyraz, Richard Querel, John Robinson, Hisako Shiona, Dan Smale, Penny Smale, Roeland Van Malderen, and Martine De Mazière
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 6819–6849, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-6819-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-6819-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Different ground-based ozone measurements from the last 2 decades at Lauder are compared to each other. We want to know why different trends have been observed in the stratosphere. Also, the quality and relevance of tropospheric datasets need to be evaluated. While remaining drifts are still present, our study explains roughly half of the differences in observed trends in previous studies and shows the necessity for continuous review and improvement of the measurements.
Vincent Charnay, Daniel P. Lowry, Elizabeth D. Keller, and Abha Sood
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3638, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3638, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study evaluates models' ability to simulate Antarctic regional climate features by comparing available PMIP past1000 and the CESM-LME models to sets of Last Millennium Antarctic proxy-based reconstructions most relevant to the surface mass balance. We later look at their implications for 21st-century sea level rise. We show that no model performs equally well for all sets of variables, and the best-scoring model predicts a higher surface mass balance by 2100.
Katarína Merganičová, Ján Merganič, Laura Dobor, Roland Hollós, Zoltán Barcza, Dóra Hidy, Zuzana Sitková, Pavel Pavlenda, Hrvoje Marjanovic, Daniel Kurjak, Michal Bošel'a, Doroteja Bitunjac, Maša Zorana Ostrogović Sever, Jiří Novák, Peter Fleischer, and Tomáš Hlásny
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 7317–7346, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7317-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-7317-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We developed a multi-objective calibration approach leading to robust parameter values aiming to strike a balance between their local precision and broad applicability. Using the Biome-BGCMuSo model, we tested the calibrated parameter sets for simulating European beech forest dynamics across large environmental gradients. Leveraging data from 87 plots and five European countries, the results demonstrated reasonable local accuracy and plausible large-scale productivity responses.
Nelson Bègue, Alexandre Baron, Gisèle Krysztofiak, Gwenaël Berthet, Corinna Kloss, Fabrice Jégou, Sergey Khaykin, Marion Ranaivombola, Tristan Millet, Thierry Portafaix, Valentin Duflot, Philippe Keckhut, Hélène Vérèmes, Guillaume Payen, Mahesh Kumar Sha, Pierre-François Coheur, Cathy Clerbaux, Michaël Sicard, Tetsu Sakai, Richard Querel, Ben Liley, Dan Smale, Isamu Morino, Osamu Uchino, Tomohiro Nagai, Penny Smale, John Robinson, and Hassan Bencherif
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 8031–8048, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-8031-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-8031-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
During the 2020 austral summer, the pristine atmosphere of the southwest Indian Ocean basin experienced significant perturbations. Numerical models indicated that the lower-stratospheric aerosol content was influenced by the intense and persistent stratospheric aerosol layer generated during the 2019–2020 extreme Australian bushfire events. Ground-based observations at Réunion confirmed the simultaneous presence of African and Australian aerosol layers.
Guang Zeng, Richard Querel, Hisako Shiona, Deniz Poyraz, Roeland Van Malderen, Alex Geddes, Penny Smale, Dan Smale, John Robinson, and Olaf Morgenstern
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 6413–6432, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-6413-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-6413-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present a homogenised ozonesonde record (1987–2020) for Lauder, a Southern Hemisphere mid-latitude site; identify factors driving ozone trends; and attribute them to anthropogenic forcings using statistical analysis and model simulations. We find that significant negative lower-stratospheric ozone trends identified at Lauder are associated with an increase in tropopause height and that CO2-driven dynamical changes have played an increasingly important role in driving ozone trends.
Astrid Müller, Hiroshi Tanimoto, Takafumi Sugita, Prabir K. Patra, Shin-ichiro Nakaoka, Toshinobu Machida, Isamu Morino, André Butz, and Kei Shiomi
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 1297–1316, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-1297-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-1297-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Satellite CH4 observations with high accuracy are needed to understand changes in atmospheric CH4 concentrations. But over oceans, reference data are limited. We combine various ship and aircraft observations with the help of atmospheric chemistry models to derive observation-based column-averaged mixing ratios of CH4 (obs. XCH4). We discuss three different approaches and demonstrate the applicability of the new reference dataset for carbon cycle studies and satellite evaluation.
Alexander Geddes, Ben Liley, Richard McKenzie, Michael Kotkamp, and Richard Querel
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 827–838, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-827-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-827-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
In this paper we describe a unique spectrometer that has been developed and tested over 10 years at Lauder, New Zealand. The spectrometer in question, UV2, makes alternating measurements of global UV and direct sun UV irradiance. After an assessment of the instrument performance, we compare the ozone and aerosol optical depth derived from UV2 to other independent measurements, finding excellent agreement suggesting that UV2 could supersede these measurements, particularly for ozone.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Peter Anthoni, Leticia Barbero, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Bertrand Decharme, Laurent Bopp, Ida Bagus Mandhara Brasika, Patricia Cadule, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Thi-Tuyet-Trang Chau, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Xinyu Dou, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Stefanie Falk, Richard A. Feely, Liang Feng, Daniel J. Ford, Thomas Gasser, Josefine Ghattas, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Fortunat Joos, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Arne Körtzinger, Xin Lan, Nathalie Lefèvre, Hongmei Li, Junjie Liu, Zhiqiang Liu, Lei Ma, Greg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Galen A. McKinley, Gesa Meyer, Eric J. Morgan, David R. Munro, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin M. O'Brien, Are Olsen, Abdirahman M. Omar, Tsuneo Ono, Melf Paulsen, Denis Pierrot, Katie Pocock, Benjamin Poulter, Carter M. Powis, Gregor Rehder, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Shintaro Takao, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Erik van Ooijen, Rik Wanninkhof, Michio Watanabe, Cathy Wimart-Rousseau, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Jiye Zeng, and Bo Zheng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5301–5369, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2023 describes the methodology, main results, and data sets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2023). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Adedayo R. Adedeji, Stephen J. Andrews, Matthew J. Rowlinson, Mathew J. Evans, Alastair C. Lewis, Shigeru Hashimoto, Hitoshi Mukai, Hiroshi Tanimoto, Yasunori Tohjima, and Takuya Saito
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 9229–9244, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9229-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-9229-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We use the GEOS-Chem model to interpret observations of CO, C2H6, C3H8, NOx, NOy and O3 made from Hateruma Island in 2018. The model captures many synoptic-scale events and the seasonality of most pollutants at the site but underestimates C2H6 and C3H8 during the winter. These underestimates are unlikely to be reconciled by increases in biomass burning emissions but could be reconciled by increasing the Asian anthropogenic source of C2H6 and C3H8 by factors of around 2 and 3, respectively.
Zhibo Shao, Yangchun Xu, Hua Wang, Weicheng Luo, Lice Wang, Yuhong Huang, Nona Sheila R. Agawin, Ayaz Ahmed, Mar Benavides, Mikkel Bentzon-Tilia, Ilana Berman-Frank, Hugo Berthelot, Isabelle C. Biegala, Mariana B. Bif, Antonio Bode, Sophie Bonnet, Deborah A. Bronk, Mark V. Brown, Lisa Campbell, Douglas G. Capone, Edward J. Carpenter, Nicolas Cassar, Bonnie X. Chang, Dreux Chappell, Yuh-ling Lee Chen, Matthew J. Church, Francisco M. Cornejo-Castillo, Amália Maria Sacilotto Detoni, Scott C. Doney, Cecile Dupouy, Marta Estrada, Camila Fernandez, Bieito Fernández-Castro, Debany Fonseca-Batista, Rachel A. Foster, Ken Furuya, Nicole Garcia, Kanji Goto, Jesús Gago, Mary R. Gradoville, M. Robert Hamersley, Britt A. Henke, Cora Hörstmann, Amal Jayakumar, Zhibing Jiang, Shuh-Ji Kao, David M. Karl, Leila R. Kittu, Angela N. Knapp, Sanjeev Kumar, Julie LaRoche, Hongbin Liu, Jiaxing Liu, Caroline Lory, Carolin R. Löscher, Emilio Marañón, Lauren F. Messer, Matthew M. Mills, Wiebke Mohr, Pia H. Moisander, Claire Mahaffey, Robert Moore, Beatriz Mouriño-Carballido, Margaret R. Mulholland, Shin-ichiro Nakaoka, Joseph A. Needoba, Eric J. Raes, Eyal Rahav, Teodoro Ramírez-Cárdenas, Christian Furbo Reeder, Lasse Riemann, Virginie Riou, Julie C. Robidart, Vedula V. S. S. Sarma, Takuya Sato, Himanshu Saxena, Corday Selden, Justin R. Seymour, Dalin Shi, Takuhei Shiozaki, Arvind Singh, Rachel E. Sipler, Jun Sun, Koji Suzuki, Kazutaka Takahashi, Yehui Tan, Weiyi Tang, Jean-Éric Tremblay, Kendra Turk-Kubo, Zuozhu Wen, Angelicque E. White, Samuel T. Wilson, Takashi Yoshida, Jonathan P. Zehr, Run Zhang, Yao Zhang, and Ya-Wei Luo
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 3673–3709, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3673-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-3673-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
N2 fixation by marine diazotrophs is an important bioavailable N source to the global ocean. This updated global oceanic diazotroph database increases the number of in situ measurements of N2 fixation rates, diazotrophic cell abundances, and nifH gene copy abundances by 184 %, 86 %, and 809 %, respectively. Using the updated database, the global marine N2 fixation rate is estimated at 223 ± 30 Tg N yr−1, which triplicates that using the original database.
Yu Someya, Yukio Yoshida, Hirofumi Ohyama, Shohei Nomura, Akihide Kamei, Isamu Morino, Hitoshi Mukai, Tsuneo Matsunaga, Joshua L. Laughner, Voltaire A. Velazco, Benedikt Herkommer, Yao Té, Mahesh Kumar Sha, Rigel Kivi, Minqiang Zhou, Young Suk Oh, Nicholas M. Deutscher, and David W. T. Griffith
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 1477–1501, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-1477-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-1477-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The updated retrieval algorithm for the Greenhouse gases Observing SATellite level 2 product is presented. The main changes in the algorithm from the previous one are the treatment of cirrus clouds, the degradation model of the sensor, solar irradiance, and gas absorption coefficient tables. The retrieval results showed improvements in fitting accuracy and an increase in the data amount over land. On the other hand, there are still large biases of XCO2 which should be corrected over the ocean.
Udo Frieß, Karin Kreher, Richard Querel, Holger Schmithüsen, Dan Smale, Rolf Weller, and Ulrich Platt
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 3207–3232, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-3207-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-3207-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Reactive bromine compounds, emitted by the sea ice during polar spring, play an important role in the atmospheric chemistry of the coastal regions of Antarctica. We investigate the sources and impacts of reactive bromine in detail using many years of measurements at two Antarctic sites located at opposite sides of the Antarctic continent. Using a multitude of meteorological observations, we were able to identify the main triggers and source regions for reactive bromine in Antarctica.
David F. Pollard, Frank Hase, Mahesh Kumar Sha, Darko Dubravica, Carlos Alberti, and Dan Smale
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 5427–5437, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5427-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-5427-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We describe measurements made in Antarctica using an EM27/SUN, a near-infrared, portable, low-resolution spectrometer from which we can retrieve the average atmospheric concentration of several greenhouse gases. We show that these measurements are reliable and comparable to other, similar ground-based measurements. Comparisons to the ESA's Sentinel-5 precursor (S5P) satellite demonstrate the usefulness of these data for satellite validation.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Luke Gregor, Judith Hauck, Corinne Le Quéré, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Are Olsen, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Ramdane Alkama, Almut Arneth, Vivek K. Arora, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Henry C. Bittig, Laurent Bopp, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Wiley Evans, Stefanie Falk, Richard A. Feely, Thomas Gasser, Marion Gehlen, Thanos Gkritzalis, Lucas Gloege, Giacomo Grassi, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Atul K. Jain, Annika Jersild, Koji Kadono, Etsushi Kato, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Peter Landschützer, Nathalie Lefèvre, Keith Lindsay, Junjie Liu, Zhu Liu, Gregg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Matthew J. McGrath, Nicolas Metzl, Natalie M. Monacci, David R. Munro, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin O'Brien, Tsuneo Ono, Paul I. Palmer, Naiqing Pan, Denis Pierrot, Katie Pocock, Benjamin Poulter, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Carmen Rodriguez, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, Jamie D. Shutler, Ingunn Skjelvan, Tobias Steinhoff, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Shintaro Takao, Toste Tanhua, Pieter P. Tans, Xiangjun Tian, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Anthony P. Walker, Rik Wanninkhof, Chris Whitehead, Anna Willstrand Wranne, Rebecca Wright, Wenping Yuan, Chao Yue, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Jiye Zeng, and Bo Zheng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 4811–4900, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4811-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-4811-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2022 describes the datasets and methodology used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, the land ecosystems, and the ocean. These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Sophie Godin-Beekmann, Niramson Azouz, Viktoria F. Sofieva, Daan Hubert, Irina Petropavlovskikh, Peter Effertz, Gérard Ancellet, Doug A. Degenstein, Daniel Zawada, Lucien Froidevaux, Stacey Frith, Jeannette Wild, Sean Davis, Wolfgang Steinbrecht, Thierry Leblanc, Richard Querel, Kleareti Tourpali, Robert Damadeo, Eliane Maillard Barras, René Stübi, Corinne Vigouroux, Carlo Arosio, Gerald Nedoluha, Ian Boyd, Roeland Van Malderen, Emmanuel Mahieu, Dan Smale, and Ralf Sussmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 11657–11673, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-11657-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-11657-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
An updated evaluation up to 2020 of stratospheric ozone profile long-term trends at extrapolar latitudes based on satellite and ground-based records is presented. Ozone increase in the upper stratosphere is confirmed, with significant trends at most latitudes. In this altitude region, a very good agreement is found with trends derived from chemistry–climate model simulations. Observed and modelled trends diverge in the lower stratosphere, but the differences are non-significant.
László Haszpra, Zoltán Barcza, Zita Ferenczi, Roland Hollós, Anikó Kern, and Natascha Kljun
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 5019–5031, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5019-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-5019-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A novel approach is used for the determination of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of small rural settlements, which may significantly differ from those of urban regions and have hardly been studied yet. Among other results, it turned out that wintertime nitrous oxide emission is significantly underestimated in the official emission inventories. Given the large number of such settlements, the underestimation may also distort the national total emission values reported to international databases.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Matthew W. Jones, Michael O'Sullivan, Robbie M. Andrew, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Judith Hauck, Corinne Le Quéré, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Rob B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Peter Anthoni, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Laurent Bopp, Thi Tuyet Trang Chau, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Kim I. Currie, Bertrand Decharme, Laique M. Djeutchouang, Xinyu Dou, Wiley Evans, Richard A. Feely, Liang Feng, Thomas Gasser, Dennis Gilfillan, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Atul Jain, Steve D. Jones, Etsushi Kato, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Arne Körtzinger, Peter Landschützer, Siv K. Lauvset, Nathalie Lefèvre, Sebastian Lienert, Junjie Liu, Gregg Marland, Patrick C. McGuire, Joe R. Melton, David R. Munro, Julia E. M. S. Nabel, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Tsuneo Ono, Denis Pierrot, Benjamin Poulter, Gregor Rehder, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Clemens Schwingshackl, Roland Séférian, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Toste Tanhua, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Nicolas Vuichard, Chisato Wada, Rik Wanninkhof, Andrew J. Watson, David Willis, Andrew J. Wiltshire, Wenping Yuan, Chao Yue, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, and Jiye Zeng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1917–2005, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1917-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1917-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2021 describes the data sets and methodology used to quantify the emissions of carbon dioxide and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land, and ocean. These living data are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Peter Sperlich, Gordon W. Brailsford, Rowena C. Moss, John McGregor, Ross J. Martin, Sylvia Nichol, Sara Mikaloff-Fletcher, Beata Bukosa, Magda Mandic, C. Ian Schipper, Paul Krummel, and Alan D. Griffiths
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 1631–1656, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1631-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1631-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We tested an in situ analyser for carbon and oxygen isotopes in atmospheric CO2 at Baring Head, New Zealand’s observatory for Southern Ocean baseline air. The analyser was able to resolve regional signals of the terrestrial carbon cycle, although the analysis of small events was limited by analytical uncertainty. Further improvement of the instrument performance would be desirable for the robust analysis of distant signals and to resolve the small variability in Southern Ocean baseline air.
Dóra Hidy, Zoltán Barcza, Roland Hollós, Laura Dobor, Tamás Ács, Dóra Zacháry, Tibor Filep, László Pásztor, Dóra Incze, Márton Dencső, Eszter Tóth, Katarína Merganičová, Peter Thornton, Steven Running, and Nándor Fodor
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 2157–2181, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-2157-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-2157-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Biogeochemical models used by the scientific community can support society in the quantification of the expected environmental impacts caused by global climate change. The Biome-BGCMuSo v6.2 biogeochemical model has been created by implementing a lot of developments related to soil hydrology as well as the soil carbon and nitrogen cycle and by integrating crop model components. Detailed descriptions of developments with case studies are presented in this paper.
Regina Gonzalez Moguel, Felix Vogel, Sébastien Ars, Hinrich Schaefer, Jocelyn C. Turnbull, and Peter M. J. Douglas
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 2121–2133, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2121-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2121-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Evaluating methane (CH4) sources in the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR) is crucial to effectively mitigate CH4 emissions. We tested the use of carbon isotopes to estimate source contributions from key CH4 sources in the AOSR and found that 56 ± 18 % of CH4 emissions originated from surface mining and processing facilities, 34 ± 18 % from tailings ponds, and 10 ± < 1 % from wetlands, confirming previous findings and showing that this method can be successfully used to partition CH4 sources.
Shohei Nomura, Manish Naja, M. Kawser Ahmed, Hitoshi Mukai, Yukio Terao, Toshinobu Machida, Motoki Sasakawa, and Prabir K. Patra
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 16427–16452, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-16427-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-16427-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Long-term measurements of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in India and Bangladesh unveiled specific characteristics in their variations in these regions. Plants including rice cultivated in winter and summer strongly affected seasonal variations and levels in CO2 and CH4. Long-term variability of GHGs showed quite different features in their growth rates from those in Mauna Loa. GHG trends in this region seemed to be hardly affected by El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Mahesh Kumar Sha, Bavo Langerock, Jean-François L. Blavier, Thomas Blumenstock, Tobias Borsdorff, Matthias Buschmann, Angelika Dehn, Martine De Mazière, Nicholas M. Deutscher, Dietrich G. Feist, Omaira E. García, David W. T. Griffith, Michel Grutter, James W. Hannigan, Frank Hase, Pauli Heikkinen, Christian Hermans, Laura T. Iraci, Pascal Jeseck, Nicholas Jones, Rigel Kivi, Nicolas Kumps, Jochen Landgraf, Alba Lorente, Emmanuel Mahieu, Maria V. Makarova, Johan Mellqvist, Jean-Marc Metzger, Isamu Morino, Tomoo Nagahama, Justus Notholt, Hirofumi Ohyama, Ivan Ortega, Mathias Palm, Christof Petri, David F. Pollard, Markus Rettinger, John Robinson, Sébastien Roche, Coleen M. Roehl, Amelie N. Röhling, Constantina Rousogenous, Matthias Schneider, Kei Shiomi, Dan Smale, Wolfgang Stremme, Kimberly Strong, Ralf Sussmann, Yao Té, Osamu Uchino, Voltaire A. Velazco, Corinne Vigouroux, Mihalis Vrekoussis, Pucai Wang, Thorsten Warneke, Tyler Wizenberg, Debra Wunch, Shoma Yamanouchi, Yang Yang, and Minqiang Zhou
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 6249–6304, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-6249-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-6249-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This paper presents, for the first time, Sentinel-5 Precursor methane and carbon monoxide validation results covering a period from November 2017 to September 2020. For this study, we used global TCCON and NDACC-IRWG network data covering a wide range of atmospheric and surface conditions across different terrains. We also show the influence of a priori alignment, smoothing uncertainties and the sensitivity of the validation results towards the application of advanced co-location criteria.
Brian Nathan, Stefanie Kremser, Sara Mikaloff-Fletcher, Greg Bodeker, Leroy Bird, Ethan Dale, Dongqi Lin, Gustavo Olivares, and Elizabeth Somervell
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 14089–14108, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-14089-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-14089-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The MAPM project showcases a method to improve estimates of PM2.5 emissions through an advanced statistical technique that is still new to the aerosol community. Using Christchurch, NZ, as a test bed, measurements from a field campaign in winter 2019 are incorporated into this new approach. An overestimation from local inventory estimates is identified. This technique may be exported to other urban areas in need.
Beata Bukosa, Jenny Fisher, Nicholas Deutscher, and Dylan Jones
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2021-173, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2021-173, 2021
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
Human activities led to rising levels of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO)) in the atmosphere, threatening our future. We use models and measurements to predict and understand the climatological impact of these gases. Here, we describe a new simulation in the GEOS-Chem model that uses a more accurate method to simulate CO2, CH4 and CO, through their chemical dependence. Relative to the original simulations our results agree better with measurements.
Stefanie Kremser, Mike Harvey, Peter Kuma, Sean Hartery, Alexia Saint-Macary, John McGregor, Alex Schuddeboom, Marc von Hobe, Sinikka T. Lennartz, Alex Geddes, Richard Querel, Adrian McDonald, Maija Peltola, Karine Sellegri, Israel Silber, Cliff S. Law, Connor J. Flynn, Andrew Marriner, Thomas C. J. Hill, Paul J. DeMott, Carson C. Hume, Graeme Plank, Geoffrey Graham, and Simon Parsons
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 13, 3115–3153, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3115-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-13-3115-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Aerosol–cloud interactions over the Southern Ocean are poorly understood and remain a major source of uncertainty in climate models. This study presents ship-borne measurements, collected during a 6-week voyage into the Southern Ocean in 2018, that are an important supplement to satellite-based measurements. For example, these measurements include data on low-level clouds and aerosol composition in the marine boundary layer, which can be used in climate model evaluation efforts.
Yosuke Niwa, Yousuke Sawa, Hideki Nara, Toshinobu Machida, Hidekazu Matsueda, Taku Umezawa, Akihiko Ito, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Hiroshi Tanimoto, and Yasunori Tohjima
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 9455–9473, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-9455-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-9455-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Fires in Equatorial Asia release a large amount of carbon into the atmosphere. Extensively using high-precision atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) data from a commercial aircraft observation project, we estimated fire carbon emissions in Equatorial Asia induced by the big El Niño event in 2015. Additional shipboard measurement data elucidated the validity of the analysis and the best estimate indicated 273 Tg C for fire emissions during September–October 2015.
Astrid Müller, Hiroshi Tanimoto, Takafumi Sugita, Toshinobu Machida, Shin-ichiro Nakaoka, Prabir K. Patra, Joshua Laughner, and David Crisp
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 8255–8271, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8255-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8255-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Over oceans, high uncertainties in satellite CO2 retrievals exist due to limited reference data. We combine commercial ship and aircraft observations and, with the aid of model calculations, obtain column-averaged mixing ratios of CO2 (XCO2) data over the Pacific Ocean. This new dataset has great potential as a robust reference for XCO2 measured from space and can help to better understand changes in the carbon cycle in response to climate change using satellite observations.
Imre Salma, Wanda Thén, Pasi Aalto, Veli-Matti Kerminen, Anikó Kern, Zoltán Barcza, Tuukka Petäjä, and Markku Kulmala
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 2861–2880, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-2861-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-2861-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The distribution of the monthly mean nucleation frequency possessed a characteristic pattern. Its shape was compared to those of environmental variables, including vegetation-derived properties. The spring maximum in the occurrence frequency often overlapped with the positive T anomaly. The link between the heat stress and the occurrence minimum in summer could not be proven, whereas an association between the occurrence frequency and vegetation growth dynamics was clearly identified in spring.
David F. Pollard, John Robinson, Hisako Shiona, and Dan Smale
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 1501–1510, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1501-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1501-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This work describes the steps taken to ensure a continuous, high-quality dataset of column-averaged greenhouse gas retrievals from the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) site at Lauder, New Zealand, following a change in the Fourier transform spectrometer used to make the measurements from which the retrievals are made.
Thomas Blumenstock, Frank Hase, Axel Keens, Denis Czurlok, Orfeo Colebatch, Omaira Garcia, David W. T. Griffith, Michel Grutter, James W. Hannigan, Pauli Heikkinen, Pascal Jeseck, Nicholas Jones, Rigel Kivi, Erik Lutsch, Maria Makarova, Hamud K. Imhasin, Johan Mellqvist, Isamu Morino, Tomoo Nagahama, Justus Notholt, Ivan Ortega, Mathias Palm, Uwe Raffalski, Markus Rettinger, John Robinson, Matthias Schneider, Christian Servais, Dan Smale, Wolfgang Stremme, Kimberly Strong, Ralf Sussmann, Yao Té, and Voltaire A. Velazco
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 1239–1252, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1239-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1239-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the level of channeling (optical resonances) of each FTIR spectrometer within the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC). Since the air gap of the beam splitter is a significant source of channeling, we propose new beam splitters with an increased wedge of the air gap. This study shows the potential for reducing channeling in the FTIR spectrometers operated by the NDACC, thereby increasing the quality of recorded spectra across the network.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Judith Hauck, Are Olsen, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Stephen Sitch, Corinne Le Quéré, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone Alin, Luiz E. O. C. Aragão, Almut Arneth, Vivek Arora, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Alice Benoit-Cattin, Henry C. Bittig, Laurent Bopp, Selma Bultan, Naveen Chandra, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Wiley Evans, Liesbeth Florentie, Piers M. Forster, Thomas Gasser, Marion Gehlen, Dennis Gilfillan, Thanos Gkritzalis, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Ian Harris, Kerstin Hartung, Vanessa Haverd, Richard A. Houghton, Tatiana Ilyina, Atul K. Jain, Emilie Joetzjer, Koji Kadono, Etsushi Kato, Vassilis Kitidis, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Peter Landschützer, Nathalie Lefèvre, Andrew Lenton, Sebastian Lienert, Zhu Liu, Danica Lombardozzi, Gregg Marland, Nicolas Metzl, David R. Munro, Julia E. M. S. Nabel, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin O'Brien, Tsuneo Ono, Paul I. Palmer, Denis Pierrot, Benjamin Poulter, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, Ingunn Skjelvan, Adam J. P. Smith, Adrienne J. Sutton, Toste Tanhua, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Guido van der Werf, Nicolas Vuichard, Anthony P. Walker, Rik Wanninkhof, Andrew J. Watson, David Willis, Andrew J. Wiltshire, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, and Sönke Zaehle
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 3269–3340, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2020 describes the data sets and methodology used to quantify the emissions of carbon dioxide and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land, and ocean. These living data are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Robert G. Ryan, Jeremy D. Silver, Richard Querel, Dan Smale, Steve Rhodes, Matt Tully, Nicholas Jones, and Robyn Schofield
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 6501–6519, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-6501-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-6501-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Models have identified Australasia as a formaldehyde (HCHO) hotspot from vegetation sources, but few measurement studies exist to verify this. We compare, and find good agreement between, HCHO measurements using three – two ground-based and one satellite-based – different spectroscopic techniques in Australia and New Zealand. This gives confidence in using satellite observations to study HCHO and associated air chemistry and pollution problems in this under-studied part of the world.
Stefan Brönnimann and Sylvia Nichol
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 14333–14346, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14333-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14333-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Historical column ozone data from New Zealand and the UK from the 1950s are digitised and re-evaluated. They allow studying the ozone layer prior to the era of ozone depletion. Day-to-day changes are addressed, which reflect the flow near the tropopause and hence may serve as a diagnostic for atmospheric circulation in a time and region of sparse radiosondes. A long-term comparison shows the amount of ozone depletion at southern mid-latitudes and indicates how far we are from full recovery.
John Robinson, Dan Smale, David Pollard, and Hisako Shiona
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 5855–5871, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-5855-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-5855-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Solar trackers are used by spectrometers to measure atmospheric trace gas concentrations using direct-sun spectroscopy. The ideal tracker should be sufficiently accurate, highly reliable, and with a longevity that exceeds the lifetime of the spectrometer which it serves. It should also be affordable, easy to use, and not too complex should maintenance be required. We present a design that fulfils these requirements using some simple innovations.
Anne R. Wecking, Vanessa M. Cave, Lìyĭn L. Liáng, Aaron M. Wall, Jiafa Luo, David I. Campbell, and Louis A. Schipper
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 5763–5777, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-5763-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-5763-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a relevant greenhouse gas emitted from soils to the atmosphere. Human activities, e.g. intensive farming, have contributed to the increase in atmospheric N2O concentrations with time. Therefore, measurements of N2O are crucial to understanding climate change. Our study developed a new technique that enables N2O measurement at small (point) and large (paddock) scales by using a single analyser. Using this new method will accelerate and advance N2O measurements in future.
Haeyoung Lee, Edward J. Dlugokencky, Jocelyn C. Turnbull, Sepyo Lee, Scott J. Lehman, John B. Miller, Gabrielle Pétron, Jeong-Sik Lim, Gang-Woong Lee, Sang-Sam Lee, and Young-San Park
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 12033–12045, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12033-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-12033-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
To understand South Korea's CO2 emissions and sinks as well as those of the surrounding region, we used flask-air samples collected for 2 years at Anmyeondo (36.53° N, 126.32° E; 46 m a.s.l.), South Korea, for analysis of observed 14C in atmospheric CO2 as a tracer of fossil fuel CO2 contribution (Cff). Here, we showed our observation result of 14C and Cff. SF6 and CO can be good proxies of Cff in this study, and the ratio of CO to Cff was compared to a bottom-up inventory.
James E. Lee, Edward J. Brook, Nancy A. N. Bertler, Christo Buizert, Troy Baisden, Thomas Blunier, V. Gabriela Ciobanu, Howard Conway, Dorthe Dahl-Jensen, Tyler J. Fudge, Richard Hindmarsh, Elizabeth D. Keller, Frédéric Parrenin, Jeffrey P. Severinghaus, Paul Vallelonga, Edwin D. Waddington, and Mai Winstrup
Clim. Past, 16, 1691–1713, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1691-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1691-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Roosevelt Island ice core was drilled to investigate climate from the eastern Ross Sea, West Antarctica. We describe the ice age-scale and gas age-scale of the ice core for 0–763 m (83 000 years BP). Old ice near the bottom of the core implies the ice dome existed throughout the last glacial period and that ice streaming was active in the region. Variations in methane, similar to those used as evidence of early human influence on climate, were observed prior to significant human populations.
Cited articles
Arora, V. K., Katavouta, A., Williams, R. G., Jones, C. D., Brovkin, V., Friedlingstein, P., Schwinger, J., Bopp, L., Boucher, O., Cadule, P., Chamberlain, M. A., Christian, J. R., Delire, C., Fisher, R. A., Hajima, T., Ilyina, T., Joetzjer, E., Kawamiya, M., Koven, C. D., Krasting, J. P., Law, R. M., Lawrence, D. M., Lenton, A., Lindsay, K., Pongratz, J., Raddatz, T., Séférian, R., Tachiiri, K., Tjiputra, J. F., Wiltshire, A., Wu, T., and Ziehn, T.: Carbon–concentration and carbon–climate feedbacks in CMIP6 models and their comparison to CMIP5 models, Biogeosciences, 17, 4173–4222, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-4173-2020, 2020.
Baker, D. F., Law, R. M., Gurney, K. R., Rayner, P., Peylin, P., Denning, A. S., Bousquet, P., Bruhwiler, L., Chen, Y.-H., Ciais, P., Fung, I. Y., Heimann, M., John, J., Maki, T., Maksyutov, S., Masarie, K., Prather, M., Pak, B., Taguchi, S., and Zhu, Z.: TransCom 3 inversion intercomparison: Impact of transport model errors on the interannual variability of regional CO2 fluxes, 1988–2003, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20, GB1002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GB002439, 2006.
Bastos, A., O'Sullivan, M., Ciais, P., Makowski, D., Sitch, S., Friedlingstein, P., Chevallier, F., Rödenbeck, C., Pongratz, J., Luijkx, I. T., Patra, P. K., Peylin, P., Canadell, J. G., Lauerwald, R., Li, W., Smith, N. E., Peters, W., Goll, D. S., Jain, A. K., Kato, E., Lienert, S., Lombardozzi, D. L., Haverd, V., Nabel, J. E. M. S., Poulter, B., Tian, H., Walker, A. P., and Zaehle, S.: Sources of Uncertainty in Regional and Global Terrestrial CO2 Exchange Estimates, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 34, e2019GB006393, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GB006393, 2020.
Berchet, A., Pison, I., Chevallier, F., Bousquet, P., Conil, S., Geever, M., Laurila, T., Lavrič, J., Lopez, M., Moncrieff, J., Necki, J., Ramonet, M., Schmidt, M., Steinbacher, M., and Tarniewicz, J.: Towards better error statistics for atmospheric inversions of methane surface fluxes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 7115–7132, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7115-2013, 2013.
Bergamaschi, P., Krol, M., Dentener, F., Vermeulen, A., Meinhardt, F., Graul, R., Ramonet, M., Peters, W., and Dlugokencky, E. J.: Inverse modelling of national and European CH4 emissions using the atmospheric zoom model TM5, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2431–2460, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-5-2431-2005, 2005.
Berhe, A. A., Barnes, R. T., Six, J., and Marín-Spiotta, E.: Role of Soil Erosion in Biogeochemical Cycling of Essential Elements: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus, Annu. Rev. Earth Pl. Sc., 46, 521–548, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517-010018, 2018.
Binkley, D., Stape, J. L., Ryan, M. G., Barnard, H. R., and Fownes, J.: Age-related Decline in Forest Ecosystem Growth: An Individual-Tree, Stand-Structure Hypothesis, Ecosystems, 5, 58–67, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-001-0055-7, 2002.
Bonan, G. B.: Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests, Science, 320, 1444–1449, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155121, 2008.
Brailsford, G. W., Stephens, B. B., Gomez, A. J., Riedel, K., Mikaloff Fletcher, S. E., Nichol, S. E., and Manning, M. R.: Long-term continuous atmospheric CO2 measurements at Baring Head, New Zealand, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, 3109–3117, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-3109-2012, 2012.
Bukosa, B.: CarbonWatch-NZ: New Zealand National Scale CO2 Inverse Modelling, Zenodo [code, data set], https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14306816, 2024.
Bukosa, B., Fisher, J. A., Deutscher, N. M., and Jones, D. B. A.: A Coupled CH4, CO and CO2 Simulation for Improved Chemical Source Modeling, Atmosphere, 14, 764, https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14050764, 2023.
Byrne, B., Baker, D. F., Basu, S., Bertolacci, M., Bowman, K. W., Carroll, D., Chatterjee, A., Chevallier, F., Ciais, P., Cressie, N., Crisp, D., Crowell, S., Deng, F., Deng, Z., Deutscher, N. M., Dubey, M. K., Feng, S., García, O. E., Griffith, D. W. T., Herkommer, B., Hu, L., Jacobson, A. R., Janardanan, R., Jeong, S., Johnson, M. S., Jones, D. B. A., Kivi, R., Liu, J., Liu, Z., Maksyutov, S., Miller, J. B., Miller, S. M., Morino, I., Notholt, J., Oda, T., O'Dell, C. W., Oh, Y.-S., Ohyama, H., Patra, P. K., Peiro, H., Petri, C., Philip, S., Pollard, D. F., Poulter, B., Remaud, M., Schuh, A., Sha, M. K., Shiomi, K., Strong, K., Sweeney, C., Té, Y., Tian, H., Velazco, V. A., Vrekoussis, M., Warneke, T., Worden, J. R., Wunch, D., Yao, Y., Yun, J., Zammit-Mangion, A., and Zeng, N.: National CO2 budgets (2015–2020) inferred from atmospheric CO2 observations in support of the global stocktake, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 963–1004, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-963-2023, 2023.
Campbell, D. I., Smith, J., Goodrich, J. P., Wall, A. M., and Schipper, L. A.: Year-round growing conditions explains large CO2 sink strength in a New Zealand raised peat bog, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 192–193, 59–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.03.003, 2014.
Campbell, D. I., Glover-Clark, G. L., Goodrich, J. P., Morcom, C. P., Schipper, L. A., and Wall, A. M.: Large differences in CO2 emissions from two dairy farms on a drained peatland driven by contrasting respiration rates during seasonal dry conditions, Sci. Total Environ., 760, 143410, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143410, 2021.
Carey, E. V., Sala, A., Keane, R., and Callaway, R. M.: Are old forests underestimated as global carbon sinks?, Glob. Change Biol., 7, 339–344, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2001.00418.x, 2001.
Cichota, R., Snow, V. O., and Tait, A. B.: A functional evaluation of virtual climate station rainfall data, New Zeal. J. Agr. Res., 51, 317–329, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288230809510463, 2008.
Crippa, M., Guizzardi, D., Banja, M., Solazzo, E., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Pagani, F., Monforti-Ferrario, F., Olivier, J., Quadrelli, R., Risquez Martin, A., Taghavi-Moharamli, P., Grassi, G., Rossi, S., Jacome Felix Oom, D., Branco, A., San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., and Vignati, E.: CO2 emissions of all world countries, EUR 31182 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, ISBN 978-92-76-55802-6, JRC130363, https://doi.org/10.2760/07904, 2022 (data available at: https://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/dataset_ghg70, last access: 26 June 2025).
DairyNZ: New Zealand Dairy Statistics 2021–22, Livestock Improvement Corporation Limited and DairyNZ, DNZ30-011, 2022.
Davies, T., Cullen, M. J. P., Malcolm, A. J., Mawson, M. H., Staniforth, A., White, A. A., and Wood, N.: A new dynamical core for the Met Office's global and regional modelling of the atmosphere, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 1759–1782, https://doi.org/10.1256/qj.04.101, 2005.
Deng, Z., Ciais, P., Tzompa-Sosa, Z. A., Saunois, M., Qiu, C., Tan, C., Sun, T., Ke, P., Cui, Y., Tanaka, K., Lin, X., Thompson, R. L., Tian, H., Yao, Y., Huang, Y., Lauerwald, R., Jain, A. K., Xu, X., Bastos, A., Sitch, S., Palmer, P. I., Lauvaux, T., d'Aspremont, A., Giron, C., Benoit, A., Poulter, B., Chang, J., Petrescu, A. M. R., Davis, S. J., Liu, Z., Grassi, G., Albergel, C., Tubiello, F. N., Perugini, L., Peters, W., and Chevallier, F.: Comparing national greenhouse gas budgets reported in UNFCCC inventories against atmospheric inversions, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1639–1675, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1639-2022, 2022.
Duffy, K. A., Schwalm, C. R., Arcus, V. L., Koch, G. W., Liang, L. L., and Schipper, L. A.: How close are we to the temperature tipping point of the terrestrial biosphere?, Sci. Adv., 7, eaay1052, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aay1052, 2021.
Dymond, J. R.: Soil erosion in New Zealand is a net sink of CO2, Earth Surf. Proc. Land., 35, 1763–1772, https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2014, 2010.
Enting, I. G.: Inverse Problems in Atmospheric Constituent Transport, Cambridge Atmospheric and Space Science Series, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511535741, 2002.
Erb, K.-H., Kastner, T., Luyssaert, S., Houghton, R. A., Kuemmerle, T., Olofsson, P., and Haberl, H.: Bias in the attribution of forest carbon sinks, Nat. Clim. Change, 3, 854–856, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2004, 2013.
Ganesan, A. L., Manning, A. J., Grant, A., Young, D., Oram, D. E., Sturges, W. T., Moncrieff, J. B., and O'Doherty, S.: Quantifying methane and nitrous oxide emissions from the UK and Ireland using a national-scale monitoring network, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 6393–6406, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-6393-2015, 2015.
Gerbig, C., Lin, J. C., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Andrews, A. E., Stephens, B. B., Bakwin, P. S., and Grainger, C. A.: Toward constraining regional-scale fluxes of CO2 with atmospheric observations over a continent: 2. Analysis of COBRA data using a receptor-oriented framework, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4757, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JD003770, 2003.
Göckede, M., Turner, D. P., Michalak, A. M., Vickers, D., and Law, B. E.: Sensitivity of a subregional scale atmospheric inverse CO2 modeling framework to boundary conditions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D24112, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014443, 2010.
Griscom, B. W., Adams, J., Ellis, P. W., Houghton, R. A., Lomax, G., Miteva, D. A., Schlesinger, W. H., Shoch, D., Siikamäki, J. V., Smith, P., Woodbury, P., Zganjar, C., Blackman, A., Campari, J., Conant, R. T., Delgado, C., Elias, P., Gopalakrishna, T., Hamsik, M. R., Herrero, M., Kiesecker, J., Landis, E., Laestadius, L., Leavitt, S. M., Minnemeyer, S., Polasky, S., Potapov, P., Putz, F. E., Sanderman, J., Silvius, M., Wollenberg, E., and Fargione, J.: Natural climate solutions, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 114, 11645–11650, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1710465114, 2017.
Gurney, K. R., Law, R. M., Denning, A. S., Rayner, P. J., Pak, B. C., Baker, D., Bousquet, P., Bruhwiler, L., Chen, Y.-H., Ciais, P., Fung, I. Y., Heimann, M., John, J., Maki, T., Maksyutov, S., Peylin, P., Prather, M., and Taguchi, S.: Transcom 3 inversion intercomparison: Model mean results for the estimation of seasonal carbon sources and sinks, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 18, GB1010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GB002111, 2004.
Henne, S., Brunner, D., Oney, B., Leuenberger, M., Eugster, W., Bamberger, I., Meinhardt, F., Steinbacher, M., and Emmenegger, L.: Validation of the Swiss methane emission inventory by atmospheric observations and inverse modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 3683–3710, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-3683-2016, 2016.
Hicks, D. M., Shankar, U., McKerchar, A. I., Basher, L., Lynn, I., Page, M., and Jessen, M.: Suspended sediment yields from New Zealand rivers, J. Hydrol., 50, 81–142, 2011.
Hidy, D., Barcza, Z., Marjanović, H., Ostrogović Sever, M. Z., Dobor, L., Gelybó, G., Fodor, N., Pintér, K., Churkina, G., Running, S., Thornton, P., Bellocchi, G., Haszpra, L., Horváth, F., Suyker, A., and Nagy, Z.: Terrestrial ecosystem process model Biome-BGCMuSo v4.0: summary of improvements and new modeling possibilities, Geosci. Model Dev., 9, 4405–4437, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-4405-2016, 2016.
Hidy, D., Barcza, Z., Hollós, R., Dobor, L., Ács, T., Zacháry, D., Filep, T., Pásztor, L., Incze, D., Dencső, M., Tóth, E., Merganičová, K., Thornton, P., Running, S., and Fodor, N.: Soil-related developments of the Biome-BGCMuSo v6.2 terrestrial ecosystem model, Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 2157–2181, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-2157-2022, 2022.
Holdaway, R. J., Easdale, T. A., Carswell, F. E., Richardson, S. J., Peltzer, D. A., Mason, N. W. H., Brandon, A. M., and Coomes, D. A.: Nationally Representative Plot Network Reveals Contrasting Drivers of Net Biomass Change in Secondary and Old-Growth Forests, Ecosystems, 20, 944–959, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-0084-x, 2017.
IPCC: 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), Hayama, Japan on behalf of the IPCC, ISBN 4-88788-032-4, 2006.
IPCC: 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ISBN 978-4-88788-232-4,2019.
Jiang, M., Medlyn, B. E., Drake, J. E., Duursma, R. A., Anderson, I. C., Barton, C. V. M., Boer, M. M., Carrillo, Y., Castañeda-Gómez, L., Collins, L., Crous, K. Y., De Kauwe, M. G., dos Santos, B. M., Emmerson, K. M., Facey, S. L., Gherlenda, A. N., Gimeno, T. E., Hasegawa, S., Johnson, S. N., Kännaste, A., Macdonald, C. A., Mahmud, K., Moore, B. D., Nazaries, L., Neilson, E. H. J., Nielsen, U. N., Niinemets, Ü., Noh, N. J., Ochoa-Hueso, R., Pathare, V. S., Pendall, E., Pihlblad, J., Piñeiro, J., Powell, J. R., Power, S. A., Reich, P. B., Renchon, A. A., Riegler, M., Rinnan, R., Rymer, P. D., Salomón, R. L., Singh, B. K., Smith, B., Tjoelker, M. G., Walker, J. K. M., Wujeska-Klause, A., Yang, J., Zaehle, S., and Ellsworth, D. S.: The fate of carbon in a mature forest under carbon dioxide enrichment, Nature, 580, 227–231, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2128-9, 2020.
Jones, A. R., Thomson, D. J., Hort, M., and Devenish, B.: The U.K. Met Office's next-generation atmospheric dispersion model, NAME III, edited by: Borrego, C. and Norman, A.-L., Air Pollution Modeling and its Application XVII (Proceedings of the 27th NATO/CCMS International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution Modelling and its Application), Boston, MA, 580–589, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-68854-1_62, 2007.
Kaminski, T., Rayner, P. J., Heimann, M., and Enting, I. G.: On aggregation errors in atmospheric transport inversions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 4703–4715, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JD900581, 2001.
Keller, E., Lieffering, M., Guo, J., Baisden, W. T., and Ausseil, A.-G.: Climatic factors influencing New Zealand pasture resilience under scenarios of future climate change, NZGA: Research and Practice Series, 17, 105–122, https://doi.org/10.33584/rps.17.2021.3458, 2021.
Keller, E. D., Baisden, W. T., Timar, L., Mullan, B., and Clark, A.: Grassland production under global change scenarios for New Zealand pastoral agriculture, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 2359–2391, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-2359-2014, 2014.
Kimberley, M., Bergin, D., and Beets, P.: Carbon sequestration by planted native trees and shrubs, Planting and managing native trees: Technical handbook, 10.5, Tāne's Tree Trust, ISBN 2230-3014, 2014.
Kira, T. and Shidei, T.: Primary production and turnover of organic matter in different forest ecosystems of the western Pacific, Japanese Journal of Ecology, 17, 70–87, 1967.
Kirschbaum, M. U. F.: CenW, a forest growth model with linked carbon, energy, nutrient and water cycles, Ecol. Model., 118, 17–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3800(99)00020-4, 1999.
Kirschbaum, M. U. F. and Watt, M. S.: Use of a process-based model to describe spatial variation in Pinus radiata productivity in New Zealand, Forest Ecol. Manag., 262, 1008–1019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.05.036, 2011.
Kirschbaum, M. U. F., Puche, N. J. B., Giltrap, D. L., Liáng, L. L., and Chabbi, A.: Combining eddy covariance measurements with process-based modelling to enhance understanding of carbon exchange rates of dairy pastures, Sci. Total Environ., 745, 140917, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140917, 2020.
Kirschbaum, M. U. F., Cowie, A. L., Peñuelas, J., Smith, P., Conant, R. T., Sage, R. F., Brandão, M., Cotrufo, M. F., Luo, Y., Way, D. A., and Robinson, S. A.: Is tree planting an effective strategy for climate change mitigation?, Sci. Total Environ., 909, 168479, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168479, 2024.
Kou, X., Peng, Z., Zhang, M., Hu, F., Han, X., Li, Z., and Lei, L.: The carbon sink in China as seen from GOSAT with a regional inversion system based on the Community Multi-scale Air Quality (CMAQ) and ensemble Kalman smoother (EnKS), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 6719–6741, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6719-2023, 2023.
Kountouris, P., Gerbig, C., Rödenbeck, C., Karstens, U., Koch, T. F., and Heimann, M.: Technical Note: Atmospheric CO2 inversions on the mesoscale using data-driven prior uncertainties: methodology and system evaluation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 3027–3045, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-3027-2018, 2018.
Landcare Research: Fundamental Soil Layer – New Zealand Soil Classification, Landcare Research via LRIS Portal, 2010a.
Landcare Research: LENZ – Slope, Landcare Research via LRIS Portal [data set], https://doi.org/10.26060/TBMR-RE43, 2010b.
Landcare Research: LCDB v5.0 – Land Cover Database version 5.0, Mainland, New Zealand (5.0), Landcare Research via LRIS Portal [data set], https://doi.org/10.26060/W5B4-WK93, 2020.
Landschützer, P., Gruber, N., and Bakker, D. C. E.: An observation-based global monthly gridded sea surface pCO2 product from 1982 onward and its monthly climatology, NCEI Accession 0160558, Version 5.5, NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information [data set], https://doi.org/10.7289/v5z899n6, 2017.
Landschützer, P., Laruelle, G. G., Roobaert, A., and Regnier, P.: A uniform pCO2 climatology combining open and coastal oceans, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 2537–2553, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2537-2020, 2020.
Lowe, D. C., Guenther, P. R., and Keeling, C. D.: The concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide at Baring Head, New Zealand, Tellus A, 31, 58–67, https://doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v31i1.10410, 1979.
Lu, X., Jacob, D. J., Wang, H., Maasakkers, J. D., Zhang, Y., Scarpelli, T. R., Shen, L., Qu, Z., Sulprizio, M. P., Nesser, H., Bloom, A. A., Ma, S., Worden, J. R., Fan, S., Parker, R. J., Boesch, H., Gautam, R., Gordon, D., Moran, M. D., Reuland, F., Villasana, C. A. O., and Andrews, A.: Methane emissions in the United States, Canada, and Mexico: evaluation of national methane emission inventories and 2010–2017 sectoral trends by inverse analysis of in situ (GLOBALVIEWplus CH4 ObsPack) and satellite (GOSAT) atmospheric observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 395–418, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-395-2022, 2022.
Luyssaert, S., Schulze, E. D., Börner, A., Knohl, A., Hessenmöller, D., Law, B. E., Ciais, P., and Grace, J.: Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks, Nature, 455, 213–215, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07276, 2008.
Maasakkers, J. D., Jacob, D. J., Sulprizio, M. P., Scarpelli, T. R., Nesser, H., Sheng, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, X., Bloom, A. A., Bowman, K. W., Worden, J. R., and Parker, R. J.: 2010–2015 North American methane emissions, sectoral contributions, and trends: a high-resolution inversion of GOSAT observations of atmospheric methane, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 4339–4356, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4339-2021, 2021.
Manning, A. J., O'Doherty, S., Jones, A. R., Simmonds, P. G., and Derwent, R. G.: Estimating UK methane and nitrous oxide emissions from 1990 to 2007 using an inversion modeling approach, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D02305, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014763, 2011.
Manning, M. R. and Pohl, K. P.: Atmospheric carbon dioxide monitoring in New Zealand, 1971–1985, DSIR, Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Lower Hutt, New Zealand, 1986.
Matross, D. M., Andrews, A., Pathmathevan, M., Gerbig, C., Lin, J. C., Wofsy, S. C., Daube, B. C., Gottlieb, E. W., Chow, V. Y., Lee, J. T., Zhao, C., Bakwin, P. S., Munger, J. W., and Hollinger, D. Y.: Estimating regional carbon exchange in New England and Quebec by combining atmospheric, ground-based and satellite data, Tellus B., https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2006.00206.x, 2006.
Meesters, A. G. C. A., Tolk, L. F., Peters, W., Hutjes, R. W. A., Vellinga, O. S., Elbers, J. A., Vermeulen, A. T., van der Laan, S., Neubert, R. E. M., Meijer, H. A. J., and Dolman, A. J.: Inverse carbon dioxide flux estimates for the Netherlands, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 117, D20306, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012JD017797, 2012.
Miller, S. M., Michalak, A. M., and Levi, P. J.: Atmospheric inverse modeling with known physical bounds: an example from trace gas emissions, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 303–315, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-7-303-2014, 2014.
Miller, S. M., Wofsy, S. C., Michalak, A. M., Kort, E. A., Andrews, A. E., Biraud, S. C., Dlugokencky, E. J., Eluszkiewicz, J., Fischer, M. L., Janssens-Maenhout, G., Miller, B. R., Miller, J. B., Montzka, S. A., Nehrkorn, T., and Sweeney, C.: Anthropogenic emissions of methane in the United States, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 110, 20018–20022, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1314392110, 2013.
Ministry for the Environment: New Zealand's Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2013, Ministry for the Environment Manatū Mō Te Taiao, ISSN 1179-223X, 2015.
Ministry for the Environment: LUCAS NZ Land Use Map (v008), Ministry for the Environment via MfE Data Service, 2016.
Ministry for the Environment: New Zealand's Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2021, Ministry for the Environment Manatū Mō Te Taiao, ISSN 1179-223X, 2023.
Ministry for the Environment: New Zealand's Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2022, Ministry for the Environment Manatū Mō Te Taiao, ISSN 1179-223X, 2024.
Mudge, P. L., Millar, J., Pronger, J., Roulston, A., Penny, V., Fraser, S., Eger, A., Caspari, T., Robertson, B., Mason, N. W. H., and Schipper, L. A.: Impacts of irrigation on soil C and N stocks in grazed grasslands depends on aridity and irrigation duration, Geoderma, 399, 115109, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115109, 2021.
Müller, A., Tanimoto, H., Sugita, T., Machida, T., Nakaoka, S., Patra, P. K., Laughner, J., and Crisp, D.: New approach to evaluate satellite-derived XCO2 over oceans by integrating ship and aircraft observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 8255–8271, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8255-2021, 2021.
National Institute for Environmental Studies (2023): NIES volunteer Observing Ship Program dataset, http://soop.jp/ (last access: 26 June 2025), 2023.
Nickless, A., Rayner, P. J., Engelbrecht, F., Brunke, E. G., Erni, B., and Scholes, R. J.: Estimates of CO2 fluxes over the city of Cape Town, South Africa, through Bayesian inverse modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 4765–4801, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-4765-2018, 2018.
Odum, E. P.: The Strategy of Ecosystem Development, Science, 164, 262–270, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.164.3877.262, 1969.
Paul, T., Kimberley, M. O., and Beets, P. N.: Natural forests in New Zealand – a large terrestrial carbon pool in a national state of equilibrium, Forest Ecosystems, 8, 34, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-021-00312-0, 2021.
Peylin, P., Houweling, S., Krol, M. C., Karstens, U., Rödenbeck, C., Geels, C., Vermeulen, A., Badawy, B., Aulagnier, C., Pregger, T., Delage, F., Pieterse, G., Ciais, P., and Heimann, M.: Importance of fossil fuel emission uncertainties over Europe for CO2 modeling: model intercomparison, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 6607–6622, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-6607-2011, 2011.
Philip, S., Johnson, M. S., Potter, C., Genovesse, V., Baker, D. F., Haynes, K. D., Henze, D. K., Liu, J., and Poulter, B.: Prior biosphere model impact on global terrestrial CO2 fluxes estimated from OCO-2 retrievals, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 13267–13287, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-13267-2019, 2019.
Pietsch, S. A., Hasenauer, H., and Thornton, P. E.: BGC-model parameters for tree species growing in central European forests, Forest Ecol. Manag., 211, 264–295, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.02.046, 2005.
Prather, M. J., Zhu, X., Strahan, S. E., Steenrod, S. D., and Rodriguez, J. M.: Quantifying errors in trace species transport modeling, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 19617–19621, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0806541106, 2008.
Pregitzer, K. S. and Euskirchen, E. S.: Carbon cycling and storage in world forests: biome patterns related to forest age, Glob. Change Biol., 10, 2052–2077, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2004.00866.x, 2004.
Pugh, T. A. M., Lindeskog, M., Smith, B., Poulter, B., Arneth, A., Haverd, V., and Calle, L.: Role of forest regrowth in global carbon sink dynamics, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 116, 4382–4387, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1810512116, 2019.
Regnier, P., Resplandy, L., Najjar, R. G., and Ciais, P.: The land-to-ocean loops of the global carbon cycle, Nature, 603, 401–410, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04339-9, 2022.
Rodgers, C. D.: Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding, Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding, World Scientific, https://doi.org/10.1142/3171, 2000.
Roobaert, A., Laruelle, G. G., Landschützer, P., and Regnier, P.: Uncertainty in the global oceanic CO2 uptake induced by wind forcing: quantification and spatial analysis, Biogeosciences, 15, 1701–1720, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-1701-2018, 2018.
Running, S. W. and Coughlan, J. C.: A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications I. Hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange and primary production processes, Ecol. Model., 42, 125–154, https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3800(88)90112-3, 1988.
Running, S. W. and Gower, S. T.: FOREST-BGC, A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications. II. Dynamic carbon allocation and nitrogen budgets1, Tree Physiol., 9, 147–160, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/9.1-2.147, 1991.
Saeki, T. and Patra, P. K.: Implications of overestimated anthropogenic CO2 emissions on East Asian and global land CO2 flux inversion, Geoscience Letters, 4, 9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40562-017-0074-7, 2017.
Schimel, D., Stephens, B. B., and Fisher, J. B.: Effect of increasing CO2 on the terrestrial carbon cycle, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 112, 436–441, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1407302112, 2015.
Schipper, L. A., Parfitt, R. L., Fraser, S., Littler, R. A., Baisden, W. T., and Ross, C.: Soil order and grazing management effects on changes in soil C and N in New Zealand pastures, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 184, 67–75, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.11.012, 2014.
Schipper, L. A., Mudge, P. L., Kirschbaum, M. U., Hedley, C. B., Golubiewski, N. E., Smaill, S. J., and Kelliher, F. M.: A review of soil carbon change in New Zealand's grazed grasslands, New Zeal. J. Agr. Res., 60, 93–118, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2017.1284134, 2017.
Schnecker, J., Baldaszti, L., Gündler, P., Pleitner, M., Sandén, T., Simon, E., Spiegel, F., Spiegel, H., Urbina Malo, C., Zechmeister-Boltenstern, S., and Richter, A.: Seasonal dynamics of soil microbial growth, respiration, biomass, and carbon use efficiency in temperate soils, Geoderma, 440, 116693, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116693, 2023.
Schuh, A. E., Denning, A. S., Corbin, K. D., Baker, I. T., Uliasz, M., Parazoo, N., Andrews, A. E., and Worthy, D. E. J.: A regional high-resolution carbon flux inversion of North America for 2004, Biogeosciences, 7, 1625–1644, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-1625-2010, 2010.
Scott, D. T., Baisden, W. T., Davies-Colley, R., Gomez, B., Hicks, D. M., Page, M. J., Preston, N. J., Trustrum, N. A., Tate, K. R., and Woods, R. A.: Localized erosion affects national carbon budget, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01402, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024644, 2006.
Smale, D., Sherlock, V., Griffith, D. W. T., Moss, R., Brailsford, G., Nichol, S., and Kotkamp, M.: A decade of CH4, CO and N2O in situ measurements at Lauder, New Zealand: assessing the long-term performance of a Fourier transform infrared trace gas and isotope analyser, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 12, 637–673, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-12-637-2019, 2019.
Sousa, W. P.: The Role of Disturbance in Natural Communities, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. S., 15, 353–391, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.15.110184.002033, 1984.
Sparling, G. P., Chibnall, E. J., Pronger, J., Rutledge, S., Wall, A. M., Campbell, D. I., and Schipper, L. A.: Estimates of annual leaching losses of dissolved organic carbon from pastures on Allophanic Soils grazed by dairy cattle, Waikato, New Zealand, New Zeal. J. Agr. Res., 59, 32–49, https://doi.org/10.1080/00288233.2015.1120222, 2016.
Stallard, R. F.: Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: Coupling weathering and erosion to carbon burial, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 12, 231–257, https://doi.org/10.1029/98GB00741, 1998.
Steinkamp, K., Mikaloff Fletcher, S. E., Brailsford, G., Smale, D., Moore, S., Keller, E. D., Baisden, W. T., Mukai, H., and Stephens, B. B.: Atmospheric CO2 observations and models suggest strong carbon uptake by forests in New Zealand, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 47–76, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-47-2017, 2017.
Stephens, B. B., Miles, N. L., Richardson, S. J., Watt, A. S., and Davis, K. J.: Atmospheric CO2 monitoring with single-cell NDIR-based analyzers, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 2737–2748, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-2737-2011, 2011.
Stephens, B. B., Brailsford, G. W., Gomez, A. J., Riedel, K., Mikaloff Fletcher, S. E., Nichol, S., and Manning, M.: Analysis of a 39-year continuous atmospheric CO2 record from Baring Head, New Zealand, Biogeosciences, 10, 2683–2697, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-2683-2013, 2013.
Stephenson, N. L., Das, A. J., Condit, R., Russo, S. E., Baker, P. J., Beckman, N. G., Coomes, D. A., Lines, E. R., Morris, W. K., Rüger, N., Álvarez, E., Blundo, C., Bunyavejchewin, S., Chuyong, G., Davies, S. J., Duque, Á., Ewango, C. N., Flores, O., Franklin, J. F., Grau, H. R., Hao, Z., Harmon, M. E., Hubbell, S. P., Kenfack, D., Lin, Y., Makana, J. R., Malizia, A., Malizia, L. R., Pabst, R. J., Pongpattananurak, N., Su, S. H., Sun, I. F., Tan, S., Thomas, D., van Mantgem, P. J., Wang, X., Wiser, S. K., and Zavala, M. A.: Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size, Nature, 507, 90–93, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12914, 2014.
Tait, A. and Liley, B.: Interpolation of daily solar radiation for New Zealand using a satellite data-derived cloud cover surface, Weather and Climate, 29, 70–88, https://doi.org/10.2307/26169706, 2009.
Tait, A., Sturman, J., and Clark, M.: An assessment of the accuracy of interpolated daily rainfall for New Zealand, J. Hydrol., 51, 25–44, 2012.
Tait, A., Henderson, R., Turner, R., and Zheng, X.: Thin plate smoothing spline interpolation of daily rainfall for New Zealand using a climatological rainfall surface, Int. J. Climatol., 26, 2097–2115, https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1350, 2006.
Tait, A. B.: Future projections of growing degree days and frost in New Zealand and some implications for grape growing, Weather and Climate, 28, 17–36, https://doi.org/10.2307/26169696, 2008.
Tarantola, A.: Inverse Problem Theory and Methods for Model Parameter Estimation, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-572-9, https://doi.org/10.1137/1.9780898717921, 2005.
Terao, Y., Mukai, H., Nojiri, Y., Machida, T., Tohjima, Y., Saeki, T., and Maksyutov, S.: Interannual variability and trends in atmospheric methane over the western Pacific from 1994 to 2010, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, D14303, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015467, 2011.
Thornton, P. E. and Rosenbloom, N. A.: Ecosystem model spin-up: Estimating steady state conditions in a coupled terrestrial carbon and nitrogen cycle model, Ecol. Model., 189, 25–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.04.008, 2005.
Thornton, P. E., Running, S. W., and Hunt, E. R.: Biome-BGC: Terrestrial Ecosystem Process Model, Version 4.2 Final Release, https://www.umt.edu/numerical-terradynamic-simulation-group/project/biome-bgc.php (last access: 12 November 2023), 2005.
Thornton, P. E., Law, B. E., Gholz, H. L., Clark, K. L., Falge, E., Ellsworth, D. S., Goldstein, A. H., Monson, R. K., Hollinger, D., Falk, M., Chen, J., and Sparks, J. P.: Modeling and measuring the effects of disturbance history and climate on carbon and water budgets in evergreen needleleaf forests, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 113, 185–222, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1923(02)00108-9, 2002.
Tian, H., Yao, Y., Li, Y., Shi, H., Pan, S., Najjar, R. G., Pan, N., Bian, Z., Ciais, P., Cai, W.-J., Dai, M., Friedrichs, M. A. M., Li, H.-Y., Lohrenz, S., and Leung, L. R.: Increased Terrestrial Carbon Export and CO2 Evasion From Global Inland Waters Since the Preindustrial Era, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 37, e2023GB007776, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GB007776, 2023.
Turner, A. J. and Jacob, D. J.: Balancing aggregation and smoothing errors in inverse models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 7039–7048, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-7039-2015, 2015.
UNFCCC: Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf (last access: 26 June 2025), 1997.
UNFCCC: Adoption of the Paris Agreement, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf (last access: 26 June 2025), 2015.
UNFCCC: Modalities, procedures and guidelines for the transparency framework for action and support referred to in Article 13 of the Paris Agreement, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, https://unfccc.int/documents/184700 (last access: 26 June 2025), 2018.
Van Tuyl, S., Law, B. E., Turner, D. P., and Gitelman, A. I.: Variability in net primary production and carbon storage in biomass across Oregon forests – an assessment integrating data from forest inventories, intensive sites, and remote sensing, Forest Ecol. Manag., 209, 273–291, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.02.002, 2005.
Villalobos, Y., Canadell, J. G., Keller, E. D., Briggs, P. R., Bukosa, B., Giltrap, D. L., Harman, I., Hilton, T. W., Kirschbaum, M. U. F., Lauerwald, R., Liang, L. L., Maavara, T., Mikaloff-Fletcher, S. E., Rayner, P. J., Resplandy, L., Rosentreter, J., Metz, E.-M., Serrano, O., and Smith, B.: A Comprehensive Assessment of Anthropogenic and Natural Sources and Sinks of Australasia's Carbon Budget, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 37, e2023GB007845, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GB007845, 2023.
Walker, A. P., De Kauwe, M. G., Medlyn, B. E., Zaehle, S., Iversen, C. M., Asao, S., Guenet, B., Harper, A., Hickler, T., Hungate, B. A., Jain, A. K., Luo, Y., Lu, X., Lu, M., Luus, K., Megonigal, J. P., Oren, R., Ryan, E., Shu, S., Talhelm, A., Wang, Y.-P., Warren, J. M., Werner, C., Xia, J., Yang, B., Zak, D. R., and Norby, R. J.: Decadal biomass increment in early secondary succession woody ecosystems is increased by CO2 enrichment, Nat. Commun., 10, 454, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08348-1, 2019.
Wall, A. M., Laubach, J., Campbell, D. I., Goodrich, J. P., Graham, S. L., Hunt, J. E., Mudge, P. L., Whitehead, D., and Schipper, L. A.: Effects of dairy farming management practices on carbon balances in New Zealand's grazed grasslands: Synthesis from 68 site-years, Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 367, 108962, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2024.108962, 2024.
Webster, S., Uddstrom, M., Oliver, H., and Vosper, S.: A high-resolution modelling case study of a severe weather event over New Zealand, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 9, 119–128, https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.172, 2008.
White, E. D., Rigby, M., Lunt, M. F., Smallman, T. L., Comyn-Platt, E., Manning, A. J., Ganesan, A. L., O'Doherty, S., Stavert, A. R., Stanley, K., Williams, M., Levy, P., Ramonet, M., Forster, G. L., Manning, A. C., and Palmer, P. I.: Quantifying the UK's carbon dioxide flux: an atmospheric inverse modelling approach using a regional measurement network, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 19, 4345–4365, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-4345-2019, 2019.
White, M. A., Thornton, P. E., Running, S. W., and Nemani, R. R.: Parameterization and Sensitivity Analysis of the BIOME–BGC Terrestrial Ecosystem Model: Net Primary Production Controls, Earth Interact., 4, 1–85, https://doi.org/10.1175/1087-3562(2000)004<0003:PASAOT>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Yamagishi, H., Tohjima, Y., Mukai, H., Nojiri, Y., Miyazaki, C., and Katsumata, K.: Observation of atmospheric oxygen/nitrogen ratio aboard a cargo ship using gas chromatography/thermal conductivity detector, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 117, D04309, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD016939, 2012.
Short summary
We used atmospheric measurements and inverse modelling to estimate New Zealand's carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and removals from 2011 to 2020. Our study reveals that New Zealand's land absorbs more CO2 than previously estimated, particularly in areas dominated by indigenous forests. Our results highlight gaps in current national CO2 estimates and methods, suggesting a need for further research to improve emissions reports and refine approaches to track progress toward climate mitigation goals.
We used atmospheric measurements and inverse modelling to estimate New Zealand's carbon dioxide...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint