Articles | Volume 24, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-6477-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-6477-2024
© Author(s) 2024. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Deep-learning-derived planetary boundary layer height from conventional meteorological measurements
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA
Yunyan Zhang
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA
Related authors
Damao Zhang, Jennifer Comstock, Chitra Sivaraman, Kefei Mo, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Jingjing Tian, Tianning Su, Zhanqing Li, and Natalia Roldán-Henao
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3453–3475, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT) is an important parameter in atmospheric process studies and numerical model simulations. We use machine learning methods to produce a best-estimate planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT-BE-ML) by integrating four PBLHT estimates derived from remote sensing measurements. We demonstrated that PBLHT-BE-ML greatly improved the comparisons against sounding-derived PBLHT.
Tianning Su and Yunyan Zhang
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 6319–6336, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6319-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6319-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Using 2 decades of field observations over the Southern Great Plains, this study developed a deep-learning model to simulate the complex dynamics of boundary layer clouds. The deep-learning model can serve as the cloud parameterization within reanalysis frameworks, offering insights into improving the simulation of low clouds. By quantifying biases due to various meteorological factors and parameterizations, this deep-learning-driven approach helps bridge the observation–modeling divide.
Tianning Su, Youtong Zheng, and Zhanqing Li
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 1453–1466, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1453-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1453-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
To enrich our understanding of coupling of continental clouds, we developed a novel methodology to determine cloud coupling state from a lidar and a suite of surface meteorological instruments. This method is built upon advancement in our understanding of fundamental boundary layer processes and clouds. As the first remote sensing method for determining the coupling state of low clouds over land, this methodology paves a solid ground for further investigating the coupled land–atmosphere system.
Jianping Guo, Jian Zhang, Kun Yang, Hong Liao, Shaodong Zhang, Kaiming Huang, Yanmin Lv, Jia Shao, Tao Yu, Bing Tong, Jian Li, Tianning Su, Steve H. L. Yim, Ad Stoffelen, Panmao Zhai, and Xiaofeng Xu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 17079–17097, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-17079-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-17079-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The planetary boundary layer (PBL) is the lowest part of the troposphere, and boundary layer height (BLH) is the depth of the PBL and is of critical importance to the dispersion of air pollution. The study presents the first near-global BLH climatology by using high-resolution (5-10 m) radiosonde measurements. The variations in BLH exhibit large spatial and temporal dependence, with a peak at 17:00 local solar time. The most promising reanalysis product is ERA-5 in terms of modeling BLH.
Pratapaditya Ghosh, Xue Zheng, Hassan Beydoun, Peter Bogenschutz, and Yunyan Zhang
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3700, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3700, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (ACP).
Short summary
Short summary
Marine low clouds play a crucial role in cooling Earth by reflecting sunlight, but storm-resolving models struggle to simulate them accurately. Using ship-based observations and machine learning, we identify which parameter combinations best reduce errors across different cloud types. We find that fixes effective for thick stratocumulus clouds do not work equally well for broken cumulus clouds, suggesting that improving these models requires different strategies for different cloud regimes.
Peter A. Bogenschutz, Yunyan Zhang, Hsi-Yen Ma, Cheng Tao, and Shaocheng Xie
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3667, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-3667, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Geoscientific Model Development (GMD).
Short summary
Short summary
Weather and climate models are often tested using simplified simulations that prescribe exchanges between the land and atmosphere. We developed a method that allows these interactions to evolve naturally and evaluated it using observations from field sites in the United States and Brazil. We found that realistic land-atmosphere interactions are important for reproducing temperature and cloud biases, while many rainfall errors originate within the atmosphere model itself.
Damao Zhang, Jennifer Comstock, Chitra Sivaraman, Kefei Mo, Raghavendra Krishnamurthy, Jingjing Tian, Tianning Su, Zhanqing Li, and Natalia Roldán-Henao
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3453–3475, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3453-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT) is an important parameter in atmospheric process studies and numerical model simulations. We use machine learning methods to produce a best-estimate planetary boundary layer height (PBLHT-BE-ML) by integrating four PBLHT estimates derived from remote sensing measurements. We demonstrated that PBLHT-BE-ML greatly improved the comparisons against sounding-derived PBLHT.
Tianning Su and Yunyan Zhang
Geosci. Model Dev., 17, 6319–6336, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6319-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-17-6319-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Using 2 decades of field observations over the Southern Great Plains, this study developed a deep-learning model to simulate the complex dynamics of boundary layer clouds. The deep-learning model can serve as the cloud parameterization within reanalysis frameworks, offering insights into improving the simulation of low clouds. By quantifying biases due to various meteorological factors and parameterizations, this deep-learning-driven approach helps bridge the observation–modeling divide.
Qi Tang, Jean-Christophe Golaz, Luke P. Van Roekel, Mark A. Taylor, Wuyin Lin, Benjamin R. Hillman, Paul A. Ullrich, Andrew M. Bradley, Oksana Guba, Jonathan D. Wolfe, Tian Zhou, Kai Zhang, Xue Zheng, Yunyan Zhang, Meng Zhang, Mingxuan Wu, Hailong Wang, Cheng Tao, Balwinder Singh, Alan M. Rhoades, Yi Qin, Hong-Yi Li, Yan Feng, Yuying Zhang, Chengzhu Zhang, Charles S. Zender, Shaocheng Xie, Erika L. Roesler, Andrew F. Roberts, Azamat Mametjanov, Mathew E. Maltrud, Noel D. Keen, Robert L. Jacob, Christiane Jablonowski, Owen K. Hughes, Ryan M. Forsyth, Alan V. Di Vittorio, Peter M. Caldwell, Gautam Bisht, Renata B. McCoy, L. Ruby Leung, and David C. Bader
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 3953–3995, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3953-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-3953-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
High-resolution simulations are superior to low-resolution ones in capturing regional climate changes and climate extremes. However, uniformly reducing the grid size of a global Earth system model is too computationally expensive. We provide an overview of the fully coupled regionally refined model (RRM) of E3SMv2 and document a first-of-its-kind set of climate production simulations using RRM at an economic cost. The key to this success is our innovative hybrid time step method.
Aurore Voldoire, Romain Roehrig, Hervé Giordani, Robin Waldman, Yunyan Zhang, Shaocheng Xie, and Marie-Nöelle Bouin
Geosci. Model Dev., 15, 3347–3370, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3347-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3347-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A single-column version of the global climate model CNRM-CM6-1 has been designed to ease development and validation of the model physics at the air–sea interface in a simplified environment. This model is then used to assess the ability to represent the sea surface temperature diurnal cycle. We conclude that the sea surface temperature diurnal variability is reasonably well represented in CNRM-CM6-1 with a 1 h coupling time step and the upper-ocean model resolution of 1 m.
Tianning Su, Youtong Zheng, and Zhanqing Li
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 1453–1466, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1453-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1453-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
To enrich our understanding of coupling of continental clouds, we developed a novel methodology to determine cloud coupling state from a lidar and a suite of surface meteorological instruments. This method is built upon advancement in our understanding of fundamental boundary layer processes and clouds. As the first remote sensing method for determining the coupling state of low clouds over land, this methodology paves a solid ground for further investigating the coupled land–atmosphere system.
Jianping Guo, Jian Zhang, Kun Yang, Hong Liao, Shaodong Zhang, Kaiming Huang, Yanmin Lv, Jia Shao, Tao Yu, Bing Tong, Jian Li, Tianning Su, Steve H. L. Yim, Ad Stoffelen, Panmao Zhai, and Xiaofeng Xu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 17079–17097, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-17079-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-17079-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The planetary boundary layer (PBL) is the lowest part of the troposphere, and boundary layer height (BLH) is the depth of the PBL and is of critical importance to the dispersion of air pollution. The study presents the first near-global BLH climatology by using high-resolution (5-10 m) radiosonde measurements. The variations in BLH exhibit large spatial and temporal dependence, with a peak at 17:00 local solar time. The most promising reanalysis product is ERA-5 in terms of modeling BLH.
Cited articles
Abadi, M., Agarwal, A., Barham, P., Brevdo, E., Chen, Z., Citro, C., Corrado, G. S., Davis, A., Dean, J., Devin, M., and Ghemawat, S.: Tensorflow: Large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous distributed systems, arXiv preprint, https://arxiv.org/abs/1603.04467 (last access: 17 January 2024), 2016.
Altmann, A., Toloşi, L., Sander, O., and Lengauer, T.: Permutation importance: a corrected feature importance measure, Bioinformatics, 26, 1340–1347, 2010.
ARM User Facility: ARM best estimate data products (ARMBEATM). Southern Great Plains (SGP) central facility, Lamont, OK (C1), compiled by: Xiao, C. and Shaocheng, X., ARM Data Center [data set], https://doi.org/10.5439/1333748, 1994.
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) user facility: Planetary Boundary Layer Height (PBLHTSONDE1MCFARL), 2024-04-16 to 2024-04-19, ARM Mobile Facility (ACX) Off the Coast of California – NOAA Ship Ronald H. Brown; AMF2 (M1), compiled by: Zhang, D. and Zhang, D., ARM Data Center, https://doi.org/10.5439/1991783, 2015.
Barlow, J. F., Dunbar, T. M., Nemitz, E. G., Wood, C. R., Gallagher, M. W., Davies, F., O'Connor, E., and Harrison, R. M.: Boundary layer dynamics over London, UK, as observed using Doppler lidar during REPARTEE-II, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 2111–2125, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-2111-2011, 2011.
Battaglia, P. W., Hamrick, J. B., Bapst, V., Sanchez-Gonzalez, A., Zambaldi, V., Malinowski, M., Tacchetti, A., Raposo, D., Santoro, A., Faulkner, R., and Gulcehre, C.: Relational inductive biases, deep learning, and graph networks, arXiv preprint, https://arxiv.org/abs/1806.01261 (last access: 17 January 2024), 2018.
Beamesderfer, E. R., Buechner, C., Faiola, C., Helbig, M., Sanchez-Mejia, Z. M., Yáñez-Serrano, A. M., Zhang, Y., and Richardson, A. D.: Advancing cross-disciplinary understanding of land-atmosphere interactions, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeosci., 127, e2021JG006707, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JG006707, 2022.
Bianco, L. and Wilczak, J. M.: Convective boundary layer depth: Improved measurements by Doppler radar wind profiler using fuzzy logic methods, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 19, 1745–1758, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2002)019<1745:CBLDIM>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Bianco, L., Wilczak, J. M., and White, A. B.: Convective boundary layer depth estimation from wind profilers: Statistical comparison between an automated algorithm and expert estimations, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 25, 1397–1413, 2008.
Breiman, L.: Random forests, Mach. Learn., 45, 5–32, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324, 2001.
Cadeddu, M. P., Turner, D. D., and Liljegren, J. C.: A neural network for real-time retrievals of PWV and LWP from Arctic millimeter-wave ground-based observations, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 47, 1887–1900, 2009.
Caughey, S. J.: Observed characteristics of the atmospheric boundary layer. In Atmospheric turbulence and air pollution modelling (107–158), Springer, Dordrecht, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-9112-1_4, 1984.
Chu, Y., Li, J., Li, C., Tan, W., Su, T., and Li, J.: Seasonal and diurnal variability of planetary boundary layer height in Beijing: Intercomparison between MPL and WRF results, Atmos. Res., 227, 1–13, 2019.
Clothiaux, E. E., Ackerman, T. P., Mace, G. G., Moran, K. P., Marchand, R. T., Miller, M. A., and Martner, B. E.: Objective determination of cloud heights and radar reflectivities using a combination of active remote sensors at the ARM CART sites, J. Appl. Meteorol., 39, 645–665, 2000.
Clothiaux, E. E., Miller, M. A., Perez, R. C., Turner, D. D., Moran, K. P., Martner, B. E., Ackerman, T. P., Mace, G. G., Marchand, R. T., Widener, K. B., and Rodriguez, D. J.: The ARM millimeter wave cloud radars (MMCRs) and the active remote sensing of clouds (ARSCL) value added product (VAP) (No. DOE/SC-ARM/VAP-002.1), DOE Office of Science Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program (United States), https://doi.org/10.2172/1808567, 2001.
Cohn, S. A. and Angevine, W. M.: Boundary layer height and entrainment zone thickness measured by lidars and wind-profiling radars, J. Appl. Meteorol., 39, 1233–1247, 2000.
Cook, D. R.: Energy balance bowen ratio station (EBBR) instrument handbook (No. DOE/SC-ARM/TR-037), DOE Office of Science Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program (United States), https://doi.org/10.2172/1020562, 2018.
Date, Y. and Kikuchi, J.: Application of a deep neural network to metabolomics studies and its performance in determining important variables, Analyt. Chem., 90, 1805–1810, 2018.
Davis, K. J., Gamage, N., Hagelberg, C. R., Kiemle, C., Lenschow, D. H., and Sullivan, P. P.: An objective method for deriving atmospheric structure from airborne lidar observations, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 17, 1455–1468, 2000.
Deardorff, J. W.: Convective velocity and temperature scales for the unstable planetary boundary layer and for Rayleigh convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 27, 1211–1213, 1970.
Dong, X., Yu, Z., Cao, W., Shi, Y., and Ma, Q.: A survey on ensemble learning, Front. Comput. Sci., 14, 241–258, 2020.
Emanuel, K. A.: Atmospheric convection.: Oxford University Press on Demand, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195066302, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712152516, 1994.
Ferrare, R.: Raman lidar/AERI PBL Height Product, United States: N. p.: Web, https://doi.org/10.5439/1996909, 2012.
Gagne II, D. J., Haupt, S. E., Nychka, D. W., and Thompson, G.: Interpretable deep learning for spatial analysis of severe hailstorms, Mon. Weather Rev., 147, 2845–2827, 2019.
Ganaie, M. A., Hu, M., Malik, A. K., Tanveer, M., and Suganthan, P. N.: Ensemble deep learning: A review, Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell., 115, 105151, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2022.105151, 2022.
Garratt, J. R.: The atmospheric boundary layer, Earth-Sci. Rev., 37, 89–134, 1994.
Guo, J., Su, T., Li, Z., Miao, Y., Li, J., Liu, H., Xu, H., Cribb, M., and Zhai, P.: Declining frequency of summertime local-scale precipitation over eastern China from 1970 to 2010 and its potential link to aerosols, Geophys. Res. Lett., 44, 5700–5708, 2017.
Guo, J., Su, T., Chen, D., Wang, J., Li, Z., Lv, Y., Guo, X., Liu, H., Cribb, M., and Zhai, P.: Declining summertime local-scale precipitation frequency over China and the United States, 1981–2012: The disparate roles of aerosols, Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 13281–13289, 2019.
Guo, J., Zhang, J., Yang, K., Liao, H., Zhang, S., Huang, K., Lv, Y., Shao, J., Yu, T., Tong, B., Li, J., Su, T., Yim, S. H. L., Stoffelen, A., Zhai, P., and Xu, X.: Investigation of near-global daytime boundary layer height using high-resolution radiosondes: first results and comparison with ERA5, MERRA-2, JRA-55, and NCEP-2 reanalyses, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 17079–17097, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-17079-2021, 2021.
Guo, J., Zhang, J., Shao, J., Chen, T., Bai, K., Sun, Y., Li, N., Wu, J., Li, R., Li, J., Guo, Q., Cohen, J. B., Zhai, P., Xu, X., and Hu, F.: A merged continental planetary boundary layer height dataset based on high-resolution radiosonde measurements, ERA5 reanalysis, and GLDAS, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 16, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-16-1-2024, 2024.
Helbig, M., Gerken, T., Beamesderfer, E. R., Baldocchi, D. D., Banerjee, T., Biraud, S. C., Brown, W. O., Brunsell, N. A., Burakowski, E. A., Burns, S. P., and Butterworth, B. J.: Integrating continuous atmospheric boundary layer and tower-based flux measurements to advance understanding of land-atmosphere interactions, Agr. For. Meteorol., 307, 108509, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2021.108509, 2021.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., and Simmons, A.: The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 146, 1999–2049, 2020.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Horányi, A., Muñoz Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Rozum, I., Schepers, D., Simmons, A., Soci, C., Dee, D., and Thépaut, J.-N.: ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present, Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS) [data set], https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47, 2023.
Holdridge, D., Ritsche, M., Prell, J., and Coulter, R.: Balloon-borne sounding system (SONDE) handbook, https://www.arm.gov/capabilities/instruments/sonde (last access: 11 January 2024), 2011.
Holtslag, A. A. and Nieuwstadt, F. T.: Scaling the atmospheric boundary layer, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 36, 201–209, 1986.
Holzworth, G. C.: Estimates of mean maximum mixing depths in the contiguous United States, Mon. Weather Rev., 92, 235–242, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1964)092<0235:EOMMMD>2.3.CO;2, 1964.
Kaimal, J. C. and Finnigan, J. J.: Atmospheric boundary layer flows: their structure and measurement, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195062396, 1994.
Kaimal, J. C., Wyngaard, J. C., Haugen, D. A., Coté, O. R., Izumi, Y., Caughey, S. J., and Readings, C. J.: Turbulence structure in the convective boundary layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 2152–2169, 1976.
Kollias, P., Bharadwaj, N., Clothiaux, E.E., Lamer, K., Oue, M., Hardin, J., Isom, B., Lindenmaier, I., Matthews, A., Luke, E. P., and Giangrande, S. E.: The ARM radar network: At the leading edge of cloud and precipitation observations, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 101, E588–E607, 2020.
Kotthaus, S., Bravo-Aranda, J. A., Collaud Coen, M., Guerrero-Rascado, J. L., Costa, M. J., Cimini, D., O'Connor, E. J., Hervo, M., Alados-Arboledas, L., Jiménez-Portaz, M., Mona, L., Ruffieux, D., Illingworth, A., and Haeffelin, M.: Atmospheric boundary layer height from ground-based remote sensing: a review of capabilities and limitations, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 433–479, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-433-2023, 2023.
Krishnamurthy, R., Newsom, R. K., Berg, L. K., Xiao, H., Ma, P.-L., and Turner, D. D.: On the estimation of boundary layer heights: a machine learning approach, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 4403–4424, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4403-2021, 2021.
Lareau, N. P., Zhang, Y., and Klein, S. A.: Observed boundary layer controls on shallow cumulus at the ARM Southern Great Plains site, J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 2235–2255, 2018.
Li, H., Liu, B., Ma, X., Jin, S., Wang, W., Fan, R., Ma, Y., Wei, R., and Gong, W.: Estimation of Planetary Boundary Layer Height from Lidar by Combining Gradient Method and Machine Learning Algorithms, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 61, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2023.3329122, 2023.
Li, Z., Guo, J., Ding, A., Liao, H., Liu, J., Sun, Y., Wang, T., Xue, H., Zhang, H., and Zhu, B.: Aerosol and boundary-layer interactions and impact on air quality, Natl. Sci. Rev., 4, 810–833, 2017.
Lilly, D. K.: Models of Cloud-Topped Mixed Layers under a Strong Inversion, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 94, 292–309, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709440106, 1968.
Liu, B., Ma, Y., Guo, J., Gong, W., Zhang, Y., Mao, F., Li, J., Guo, X., and Shi, Y: Boundary layer heights as derived from ground-based Radar wind profiler in Beijing, IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 57, 8095–8104, 2019.
Liu, L., Jiang, H., He, P., Chen, W., Liu, X., Gao, J., and Han, J.: On the variance of the adaptive learning rate and beyond, arXiv preprint, https://arxiv.org/abs/1908.03265 (last access: 11 January 2024), 2019.
Liu, S. and Liang, X. Z.: Observed diurnal cycle climatology of planetary boundary layer height, J. Climate, 23, 5790–5809, https://doi.org/10.5439/1595321, 2010.
Liu, Z., Chang, J., Li, H., Chen, S., and Dai, T.: Estimating boundary layer height from lidar data under complex atmospheric conditions using machine learning, Remote Sens., 14, 418, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14020418, 2022.
Mahrt, L.: Stratified atmospheric boundary layers, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 90, 375–396, 1999.
Martin, S. T., Artaxo, P., Machado, L. A. T., Manzi, A. O., Souza, R. A. F., Schumacher, C., Wang, J., Andreae, M. O., Barbosa, H. M. J., Fan, J., Fisch, G., Goldstein, A. H., Guenther, A., Jimenez, J. L., Pöschl, U., Silva Dias, M. A., Smith, J. N., and Wendisch, M.: Introduction: Observations and Modeling of the Green Ocean Amazon (GoAmazon2014/5), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 4785–4797, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-4785-2016, 2016.
Matsui, T., Masunaga, H., Pielke, R. A., and Tao, W. K.: Impact of aerosols and atmospheric thermodynamics on cloud properties within the climate system, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06109, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL019287, 2004.
McGovern, A., Elmore, K. L., Gagne, D. J., Haupt, S. E., Karstens, C. D., Lagerquist, R., Smith, T., and Williams, J. K.: Using artificial intelligence to improve real-time decision-making for high-impact weather, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 2073–2090, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0123.1, 2017.
Melfi, S. H., Spinhirne, J. D., Chou, S. H., and Palm, S. P.: Lidar observations of vertically organized convection in the planetary boundary layer over the ocean, J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 24, 806–821, 1985.
Menut, L., Flamant, C., Pelon, J., and Flamant, P. H.: Urban boundary-layer height determination from lidar measurements over the Paris area, Appl. Opt., 38, 945–954, 1999.
Mohammed, A. and Kora, R.: A comprehensive review on ensemble deep learning: Opportunities and challenges, J. King Saud Univ.-Comput. Info. Sci., 35, 757–774, 2023.
Molero, F., Barragán, R., and Artíñano, B.: Estimation of the atmospheric boundary layer height by means of machine learning techniques using ground-level meteorological data, Atmos. Res., 279, 106401, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106401, 2022.
Molod, A., Salmun, H., and Dempsey, M.: Estimating Planetary Boundary Layer Heights from NOAA Profiler Network Wind Profiler Data, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 32, 1545–1561, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-14-00155.1, 2015.
Nielsen, M. A.: Neural Netw. and deep learning, Vol. 25, 15–24, San Francisco, CA, USA: Determination press, 2015.
Pang, B., Nijkamp, E., and Wu, Y. N.: Deep learning with tensorflow: A review, J. Educ. Behav. Stat., 45, 227–248, 2020.
Park, O. H., Seo, S. J., and Lee, S. H.: Laboratory simulation of vertical plume dispersion within a convective boundary layer – Research note, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 99, 159–169, 2001.
Raju, V. G., Lakshmi, K. P., Jain, V. M., Kalidindi, A., and Padma, V.: August. Study the influence of normalization/transformation process on the accuracy of supervised classification, in: 2020 Third International Conference on Smart Systems and Inventive Technology (ICSSIT), 729–735, IEEE, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSSIT48917.2020.9214160, 2020.
Rieutord, T., Aubert, S., and Machado, T.: Deriving boundary layer height from aerosol lidar using machine learning: KABL and ADABL algorithms, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 4335–4353, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-4335-2021, 2021.
Salmun, H., Josephs, H., and Molod, A.: GRWP-PBLH: Global Radar Wind Profiler Planetary Boundary Layer Height Data, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 104, E1044–E1057, 2023.
Sawyer, V. and Li, Z.: Detection, variations and intercomparison of the planetary boundary layer depth from radiosonde, lidar and infrared spectrometer, Atmos. Environ., 79, 518–528, 2013.
Schmidhuber, J.: Deep learning in Neural Network: An overview, Neural Netw., 61, 85–117, 2015.
Seidel, D. J., Ao, C. O., and Li, K.: Estimating climatological planetary boundary layer heights from radiosonde observations: Comparison of methods and uncertainty analysis, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D16113, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013680, 2010.
Sivaraman, C. and Zhang, D.: Planetary Boundary Layer Height derived from Doppler Lidar (DL) data, United States: N. p.: Web., ARM [data set], https://doi.org/10.5439/1726254, 2021.
Sleeman, J., Halem, M., Yang, Z., Caicedo, V., Demoz, B., and Delgado, R.: September. A deep machine learning approach for lidar based boundary layer height detection, in: IGARSS 2020-2020 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sens. Symposium, 3676–3679, IEEE, https://doi.org/10.1109/IGARSS39084.2020.9324191, 2020.
Solanki, R., Guo, J., Lv, Y., Zhang, J., Wu, J., Tong, B., and Li, J.: Elucidating the atmospheric boundary layer turbulence by combining UHF radar wind profiler and radiosonde measurements over urban area of Beijing, Urban Clim., 43, 101151, 2022.
Stull, R. B.: An Introduction to Boundary Layer Meteorology, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, ISBN 978-90-277-2769-5, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-3027-8, 1988.
Su, T.: Deep-Learning-derived Boundary Layer Height from Meteorological Data over the SGP, GOAMAZON, CACTI, ARM Data Archive [data set], https://doi.org/10.5439/2344988, 2024.
Su, T., and Li, Z.: Planetary Boundary Layer Height (PBLH) over SGP from 1998 to 2023, ARM Data Archive [data set], https://doi.org/10.5439/2007149, 2023.
Su, T., Laszlo, I., Li, Z., Wei, J., and Kalluri, S.: Refining aerosol optical depth retrievals over land by constructing the relationship of spectral surface reflectances through deep learning: Application to Himawari-8, Remote Sens. Environ., 251, 112093, 2020a.
Su, T., Li, Z., and Kahn, R.: A new method to retrieve the diurnal variability of planetary boundary layer height from lidar under different thermodynamic stability conditions, Remote Sens. Environ., 237, 111519, 2020b.
Su, T., Zheng, Y., and Li, Z.: Methodology to determine the coupling of continental clouds with surface and boundary layer height under cloudy conditions from lidar and meteorological data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 1453–1466, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-1453-2022, 2022.
Su, T., Li, Z., and Zheng, Y.: Cloud-Surface Coupling Alters the Morning Transition From Stable to Unstable Boundary Layer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 50, e2022GL102256, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GL102256, 2023.
Su, T., Li, Z., Roldán, N., Luan, Q., and Yu, F.: Constraining Effects of Aerosol-Cloud Interaction by Accounting for Coupling between Cloud and Land Surface, Sci. Adv., 10, eadl5044, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adl504, 2024a.
Su, T., Li, Z., Zhang, Y., Zheng, Y., and Zhang, H.: Observation and Reanalysis Derived Relationships Between Cloud and Land Surface Fluxes Across Cumulus and Stratiform Coupling Over the Southern Great Plains, Geophys. Res. Lett., 51, e2023GL108090, https://doi.org/10.1029/2023GL108090, 2024b.
Summa, D., Di Girolamo, P., Stelitano, D., and Cacciani, M.: Characterization of the planetary boundary layer height and structure by Raman lidar: comparison of different approaches, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 6, 3515–3525, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-6-3515-2013, 2013.
Sze, V., Chen, Y. H., Yang, T. J., and Emer, J. S.: Efficient processing of deep Neural Netw.: A tutorial and survey, Proc. IEEE, 105, 2295–2329, 2017.
Tang, S., Xie, S., Zhang, M., Tang, Q., Zhang, Y., Klein, S. A., Cook, D. R., and Sullivan, R. C.: Differences in eddy-correlation and energy-balance surface turbulent heat flux measurements and their impacts on the large-scale forcing fields at the ARM SGP site, J. Geophy. Res.-Atmos., 124, 3301–3318, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029689, 2019.
Tao, C., Zhang, Y., Tang, Q., Ma, H., Ghate, V. P., Tang, S., Xie, S., and Santanello, J. A.: Land–Atmosphere Coupling at the U.S. Southern Great Plains: A Comparison on Local Convective Regimes between ARM Observations, Reanalysis, and Climate Model Simulations, J. Hydrometeor., 22, 463–481, https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-20-0078.1, 2021.
TensorFlow: An Open Source Machine Learning Framework for Everyone, GitHub, [software], https://github.com/tensorflow (last access: 11 January 2024), 2024.
Tucker, S. C., Brewer, W. A., Banta, R. M., Senff, C. J., Sandberg, S. P., Law, D. C., Weickmann, A. M., and Hardesty, R. M.: Doppler Lidar Estimation of Mixing Height Using Turbulence, Shear, and Aerosol Profiles, J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol., 26, 673–688, 2009.
Varble, A. C., Nesbitt, S. W., Salio, P., Hardin, J. C., Bharadwaj, N., Borque, P., DeMott, P. J., Feng, Z., Hill, T. C. J., Marquis, J. N., Matthews, A., Mei, F., Öktem, R., Castro, V., Goldberger, L., Hunzinger, A., Barry, K. R., Kreidenweis, S. M., McFarquhar, G. M., McMurdie, L. A., Pekour, M., Powers, H., Romps, D. M., Saulo, C., Schmid, B., Tomlinson, J. M., van den Heever, S. C., Zelenyuk, A., Zhang, Z., and Zipser, E. J.: Utilizing a storm-generating hotspot to study convective cloud transitions: The CACTI experiment, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 102, E1597–E1620, 2021.
Vassallo, D., Krishnamurthy, R., and Fernando, H. J. S.: Decreasing wind speed extrapolation error via domain-specific feature extraction and selection, Wind Energ. Sci., 5, 959–975, https://doi.org/10.5194/wes-5-959-2020, 2020.
Wang, J., Su, H., Wei, C., Zheng, G., Wang, J., Su, T., Li, C., Liu, C., Pleim, J. E., Li, Z., and Ding, A.: Black-carbon-induced regime transition of boundary layer development strongly amplifies severe haze, One Earth, 6, 751–759, 2023.
Wang, Y., Zheng, X., Dong, X., Xi, B., Wu, P., Logan, T., and Yung, Y. L.: Impacts of long-range transport of aerosols on marine-boundary-layer clouds in the eastern North Atlantic, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 14741–14755, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14741-2020, 2020.
Wesely, M. L., Cook, D. R., and Coulter, R. L.: Surface heat flux data from energy balance Bowen ratio systems (No. ANL/ER/CP-84065; CONF-9503104-2), Argonne National Lab., IL (United States), https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/69120 (last access: 11 January 2024), 1995.
Xie, S., McCoy, R. B., Klein, S. A., Cederwall, R. T., Wiscombe, W. J., Jensen, M. P., Johnson, K. L., Clothiaux, E. E., Gaustad, K. L., Long, C. N., and Mather, J. H.: Clouds and more: ARM climate modeling best estimate data: a new data product for climate studies, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 91, 13–20, 2010.
Xue, W., Dai, X., and Liu, L.: Remote Sens. scene classification based on multi-structure deep features fusion, IEEE Access, 8, 28746–28755, 2020.
Ye, J., Liu, L., Wang, Q., Hu, S., and Li, S.: A novel machine learning algorithm for planetary boundary layer height estimation using AERI measurement data, IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett., 19, 1–5, 2021.
Zhang, D., Comstock, J., and Morris, V.: Comparison of planetary boundary layer height from ceilometer with ARM radiosonde data, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 4735–4749, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-4735-2022, 2022.
Zhang, Y. and Klein, S. A.: Mechanisms affecting the transition from shallow to deep convection over land: Inferences from observations of the diurnal cycle collected at the ARM Southern Great Plains site, J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 2943–2959, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010jas3366.1, 2010.
Zhang, Y. and Klein, S. A.: Factors controlling the vertical extent of fair-weather shallow cumulus clouds over land: Investigation of diurnal-cycle observations collected at the ARM Southern Great Plains site, J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 1297–1315, https://doi.org/10.1175/jas-d-12-0131.1, 2013.
Zhang, Z.: Improved Adam optimizer for deep neural networks, IEEE/ACM 26th International Symposium on Quality of Service (IWQoS), Canada, IEEE (2018), 1–2, https://doi.org/10.1109/IWQoS.2018.8624183, 2018.
Short summary
The planetary boundary layer is critical to our climate system. This study uses a deep learning approach to estimate the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) from conventional meteorological measurements. By training data from comprehensive field observations, our model examines the influence of various meteorological factors on PBLH and demonstrates effectiveness across different scenarios, offering a reliable tool for understanding boundary layer dynamics.
The planetary boundary layer is critical to our climate system. This study uses a deep learning...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint