Articles | Volume 25, issue 18
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-10603-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-10603-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
16 Sep 2025
Research article |
| 16 Sep 2025
| 16 Sep 2025
Influence of atmospheric waves and deep convection on water vapour in the equatorial lower stratosphere seen from long-duration balloon measurements
Sullivan Carbone
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Groupe de Spectrométrie Moléculaire et Atmosphérique (GSMA, CNRS UMR 7331), Université de Reims, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Moulin de la Housse B.P. 1039, 51687 Reims CEDEX 2, France
Emmanuel D. Riviere
Groupe de Spectrométrie Moléculaire et Atmosphérique (GSMA, CNRS UMR 7331), Université de Reims, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Moulin de la Housse B.P. 1039, 51687 Reims CEDEX 2, France
Mélanie Ghysels
Groupe de Spectrométrie Moléculaire et Atmosphérique (GSMA, CNRS UMR 7331), Université de Reims, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Moulin de la Housse B.P. 1039, 51687 Reims CEDEX 2, France
Jérémie Burgalat
Groupe de Spectrométrie Moléculaire et Atmosphérique (GSMA, CNRS UMR 7331), Université de Reims, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Moulin de la Housse B.P. 1039, 51687 Reims CEDEX 2, France
Georges Durry
Groupe de Spectrométrie Moléculaire et Atmosphérique (GSMA, CNRS UMR 7331), Université de Reims, UFR Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, Moulin de la Housse B.P. 1039, 51687 Reims CEDEX 2, France
Nadir Amarouche
INSU Division Technique, 1 place Aristide Briand, 92195 Meudon CEDEX, France
Aurélien Podglajen
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD/IPSL), Sorbonne Université, École polytechnique, Institut polytechnique de Paris, École normale supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Paris, France
Albert Hertzog
Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD/IPSL), Sorbonne Université, École polytechnique, Institut polytechnique de Paris, École normale supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Paris, France
Related authors
No articles found.
Pierre Cadiou, Riwal Plougonven, Aurélien Podglajen, Albert Hertzog, and Alexandra Mac Farlane
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3208, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3208, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics (ACP).
Short summary
Short summary
Winds in the Equatorial region remain difficult to model. We take advantage of long-duration balloon campaigns from 2019 and 2021 to assess errors in winds between 18 and 20 km in a weather forecast model. Large errors persist: one third of the time, the error is larger than 3.5 meters per second. This has implications for research studies that calculate air mass trajectories in this transition region between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
Clair Duchamp, Bernard Legras, Aurélien Podglajen, Pasquale Sellitto, Adam E. Bourassa, Alexei Rozanov, Ghassan Taha, and Daniel J. Zawada
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3355, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3355, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
Short summary
Short summary
We analyzed the stratospheric aerosol plume from the 2022 Hunga eruption using satellite lidar data. We implemented a method to retrieve some aerosol properties, as standard products failed in this case. We found very high optical depth values in the days following the eruption, which decreased rapidly but remained elevated for months. Our results are broadly validated, though some satellite products underestimate the values due, in part, to the unusual aerosol size distribution in the plume.
Pasquale Sellitto, Redha Belhadji, Bernard Legras, Aurélien Podglajen, and Clair Duchamp
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 6353–6364, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-6353-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-6353-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai volcano erupted on 15 January 2022, producing the largest stratospheric aerosol perturbation of the last 30 years. Stratospheric volcanic aerosols usually produce a transient climate cooling; these impacts depend on volcanic aerosol composition/size, due to size-dependent interactions with solar/terrestrial radiation. We demonstrate that the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha’apai stratospheric aerosols have a larger cooling potential per unit mass than the past climate-relevant El Chichón (1984) and Pinatubo (1991) eruptions.
Simone Brunamonti, Harald Saathoff, Albert Hertzog, Glenn Diskin, Masatomo Fujiwara, Karen Rosenlof, Ottmar Möhler, Béla Tuzson, Lukas Emmenegger, Nadir Amarouche, Georges Durry, Fabien Frérot, Jean-Christophe Samake, Claire Cenac, Julio Lopez, Paul Monnier, and Mélanie Ghysels
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1029, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-1029, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Water vapor is a strong greenhouse gas and accurate measurements of its concentration in the upper atmosphere (~8–25 km altitude) are crucial for reliable climate predictions. We investigated the performance of four airborne hygrometers, deployed on aircraft or stratospheric balloon platforms and based on different techniques, in a climate simulation chamber. The results demonstrate the high accuracy and reliability of the involved sensors for atmospheric monitoring and research applications.
Tanja J. Schuck, Johannes Degen, Timo Keber, Katharina Meixner, Thomas Wagenhäuser, Mélanie Ghysels, Georges Durry, Nadir Amarouche, Alessandro Zanchetta, Steven van Heuven, Huilin Chen, Johannes C. Laube, Sophie L. Baartman, Carina van der Veen, Maria Elena Popa, and Andreas Engel
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 4333–4348, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-4333-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-4333-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
A balloon was launched in 2021 in the Arctic to carry instruments for trace gas measurements up to 32 km. One purpose was to compare measurement techniques. We focus on the major greenhouse gases. To measure these, air was sampled with the AirCore technique and with flask sampling, and samples were analysed after the flight. In flight, observations were done with an optical method. In a companion paper, we report on observations of chlorine and bromine containing trace gases.
Xiaolu Yan, Paul Konopka, Felix Ploeger, and Aurélien Podglajen
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 1289–1305, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1289-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1289-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Our study finds that the air mass fractions (AMFs) from the Asian boundary layer (ABL) to the polar regions are about 1.5 times larger than those from the same latitude band in the Southern Hemisphere. The transport of AMFs from the ABL to the polar vortex primarily occurs above 20 km and over timescales exceeding 2 years. Our analysis reveals a strong correlation between the polar pollutants and the AMFs from the ABL. About 20 % of SF6 in the polar stratosphere originates from the ABL.
Jean-Louis Bonne, Ludovic Donnat, Grégory Albora, Jérémie Burgalat, Nicolas Chauvin, Delphine Combaz, Julien Cousin, Thomas Decarpenterie, Olivier Duclaux, Nicolas Dumelié, Nicolas Galas, Catherine Juery, Florian Parent, Florent Pineau, Abel Maunoury, Olivier Ventre, Marie-France Bénassy, and Lilian Joly
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 4471–4491, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-4471-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-4471-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We present a top-down approach to quantify CO2 and CH4 emissions at the scale of an industrial site, based on a mass balance model relying on atmospheric concentrations measurements from a new sensor embarked on board uncrewed aircraft vehicles (UAVs). We present a laboratory characterization of our sensor and a field validation of our quantification method, together with field application to the monitoring of two real-world offshore oil and gas platforms.
Mélanie Ghysels, Georges Durry, Nadir Amarouche, Dale Hurst, Emrys Hall, Kensy Xiong, Jean-Charles Dupont, Jean-Christophe Samake, Fabien Frérot, Raghed Bejjani, and Emmanuel D. Riviere
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 3495–3513, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3495-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-3495-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
A tunable diode laser hygrometer, “Pico-Light H2O”, is presented and its performances are evaluated during the AsA 2022 balloon-borne intercomparison campaign from Aire-sur-l'Adour (France) in September 2022. A total of 15 balloons were launched within the framework of the EU-funded HEMERA project. Pico-Light H2O has been compared in situ with the NOAA Frost Point Hygrometer in the upper troposphere and stratosphere, as well as with meteorological sondes (iMet-4 and M20) in the troposphere.
Thomas Lesigne, François Ravetta, Aurélien Podglajen, Vincent Mariage, and Jacques Pelon
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 5935–5952, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-5935-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-5935-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Upper tropical clouds have a strong impact on Earth's climate but are challenging to observe. We report the first long-duration observations of tropical clouds from lidars flying on board stratospheric balloons. Comparisons with spaceborne observations reveal the enhanced sensitivity of balloon-borne lidar to optically thin cirrus. These clouds, which have a significant coverage and lie in the uppermost troposphere, are linked with the dehydration of air masses on their way to the stratosphere.
Pasquale Sellitto, Redha Belhadji, Juan Cuesta, Aurélien Podglajen, and Bernard Legras
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 15523–15535, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15523-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15523-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Record-breaking wildfires ravaged south-eastern Australia during the fire season 2019–2020. These fires injected a smoke plume in the stratosphere, which dispersed over the whole Southern Hemisphere and interacted with solar and terrestrial radiation. A number of detached smoke bubbles were also observed emanating from this plume and ascending quickly to over 35 km altitude. Here we study how absorption of radiation generated ascending motion of both the the hemispheric plume and the vortices.
Milena Corcos, Albert Hertzog, Riwal Plougonven, and Aurélien Podglajen
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 6923–6939, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6923-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6923-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The role of gravity waves on tropical cirrus clouds and air-parcel dehydration was studied using the combination of Lagrangian observations of temperature fluctuations from superpressure balloons and a 1.5D model. The inclusion of the gravity waves to a reference simulation of a slow ascent around the cold-point tropopause drastically increases ice-crystal density, cloud fraction, and air-parcel dehydration, and it produces a crystal size distribution that agrees better with observations.
Richard Wilson, Clara Pitois, Aurélien Podglajen, Albert Hertzog, Milena Corcos, and Riwal Plougonven
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 311–330, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-311-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-311-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Strateole-2 is an French–US initiative designed to study atmospheric events in the tropical upper troposphere–lower stratosphere. In this work, data from several superpressure balloons, capable of staying aloft at an altitude of 18–20 km for over 3 months, were used. The present article describes methods to detect the occurrence of atmospheric turbulence – one efficient process impacting the properties of the atmosphere composition via stirring and mixing.
Bing Cao, Jennifer S. Haase, Michael J. Murphy, M. Joan Alexander, Martina Bramberger, and Albert Hertzog
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 15379–15402, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15379-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-15379-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Atmospheric waves that carry momentum from tropospheric weather systems into the equatorial stratosphere modify the winds there. The Strateole-2 2019 campaign launched long-duration stratospheric superpressure balloons to measure these equatorial waves. We deployed a GPS receiver on one of the balloons to measure atmospheric temperature profiles beneath the balloon. Temperature variations in the retrieved profiles show planetary-scale waves with a 20 d period and 3–4 d period waves.
Bernard Legras, Clair Duchamp, Pasquale Sellitto, Aurélien Podglajen, Elisa Carboni, Richard Siddans, Jens-Uwe Grooß, Sergey Khaykin, and Felix Ploeger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 14957–14970, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14957-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14957-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The long-duration atmospheric impact of the Tonga eruption in January 2022 is a plume of water and sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere that persisted for more than 6 months. We study this evolution using several satellite instruments and analyse the unusual behaviour of this plume as sulfates and water first moved down rapidly and then separated into two layers. We also report the self-organization in compact and long-lived patches.
Abhinna K. Behera, Emmanuel D. Rivière, Sergey M. Khaykin, Virginie Marécal, Mélanie Ghysels, Jérémie Burgalat, and Gerhard Held
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 881–901, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-881-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-881-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Deep convection overshooting the stratosphere's contribution to the global stratospheric water budget is still being quantified. We ran three different cloud-resolving simulations of an observed case of overshoots in Bauru during the TRO-Pico balloon campaign in the context of upscaling the impact of overshoots at a large scale. These simulations, which have been validated with balloon-borne and S-band radar measurements, shed light on the local-scale variability and composition of overshoots.
Nuria Pilar Plaza, Aurélien Podglajen, Cristina Peña-Ortiz, and Felix Ploeger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 9585–9607, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-9585-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-9585-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We study the role of different processes in setting the lower stratospheric water vapour. We find that mechanisms involving ice microphysics and small-scale mixing produce the strongest increase in water vapour, in particular over the Asian Monsoon. Small-scale mixing has a special relevance as it improves the agreement with observations at seasonal and intra-seasonal timescales, contrary to the North American Monsoon case, in which large-scale temperatures still dominate its variability.
Hugo Lestrelin, Bernard Legras, Aurélien Podglajen, and Mikail Salihoglu
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 7113–7134, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7113-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-7113-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Following the 2020 Australian fires, it was recently discovered that stratospheric wildfire smoke plumes self-organize as anticyclonic vortices that persist for months and rise by 10 km due to the radiative heating from the absorbing smoke. In this study, we show that smoke-charged vortices previously occurred in the aftermath of the 2017 Canadian fires. We use meteorological analysis to characterize this new object in geophysical fluid dynamics, which likely impacts radiation and climate.
Xiaolu Yan, Paul Konopka, Marius Hauck, Aurélien Podglajen, and Felix Ploeger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 6627–6645, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6627-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6627-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Inter-hemispheric transport is important for understanding atmospheric tracers because of the asymmetry in emissions between the Southern Hemisphere (SH) and Northern Hemisphere (NH). This study finds that the air masses from the NH extratropics to the atmosphere are about 5 times larger than those from the SH extratropics. The interplay between the Asian summer monsoon and westerly ducts triggers the cross-Equator transport from the NH to the SH in boreal summer and fall.
Mélanie Ghysels, Georges Durry, Nadir Amarouche, Jean-Christophe Samake, Fabien Frérot, and Emmanuel D. Rivière
Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2020-269, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2020-269, 2020
Publication in AMT not foreseen
Short summary
Short summary
Understanding the processes which regulate the entry of water into the lower stratosphere is essential to address the impact of water vapor on the climate, but also for the future balance of the ozone layer. Developing lightweight hygrometers is of importance to allow frequent sounding in support of such understanding. In this frame, a new lightweight hygrometer, named Pico-Light H2O, has been tested twice in-flight under rubber balloon in 2019.
Cited articles
Angelbratt, J., Mellqvist, J., Blumenstock, T., Borsdorff, T., Brohede, S., Duchatelet, P., Forster, F., Hase, F., Mahieu, E., Murtagh, D., Petersen, A. K., Schneider, M., Sussmann, R., and Urban, J.: A new method to detect long term trends of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) total columns measured within the NDACC ground-based high resolution solar FTIR network, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 6167–6183, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-6167-2011, 2011.
Behera, A. K., Rivière, E. D., Khaykin, S. M., Marécal, V., Ghysels, M., Burgalat, J., and Held, G.: On the cross-tropopause transport of water by tropical convective overshoots: a mesoscale modelling study constrained by in situ observations during the TRO-Pico field campaign in Brazil, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 881–901, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-881-2022, 2022.
Bessho, K., Date, K., Hayashi, M., Ikeda, A., Imai, T., Inoue, H., Kumagai, Y., Miyakawa, T., Murata, H., Ohno, T., Okuyama, A., Oyama, R., Sasaki, Y., Shimazu, Y., Shimoji, K., Sumida, Y., Suzuki, M., Taniguchi, H., Tsuchiyama, H., Uesawa, D., Yokota, H., and Yoshida, R.: An Introduction to Himawari-8/9 Japan’s New-Generation Geostationary Meteorological Satellites, Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. Ser. II, 94, 2, 151–183, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2016-009, 2016.
Chaboureau, J.-P., Cammas, J.-P., Duron, J., Mascart, P. J., Sitnikov, N. M., and Voessing, H.-J.: A numerical study of tropical cross-tropopause transport by convective overshoots, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 1731–1740, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-1731-2007, 2007.
Chemel, C., Staquet, C., and Largeron, Y.: Generation of internal gravity waves by a katabatic wind in an idealized alpine valley, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 103, 187–194, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-009-0349-4, 2009.
Corcos, M., Hertzog, A., Plougonven, R., and Podglajen, A.: A simple model to assess the impact of gravity waves on ice-crystal populations in the tropical tropopause layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 6923–6939, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-6923-2023, 2023.
Danielsen, E. F.: A dehydration mechanism for the stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 9, 605–608, https://doi.org/10.1029/GL009i006p00605, 1982.
Dauhut, T. and Hohenegger, C.: The Contribution of Convection to the Stratospheric Water Vapor: The First Budget Using a Global Storm-Resolving Model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 127, e2021JD036295, https://doi.org/10.1029/2021JD036295, 2022.
Dessler, A. E., Ye, H., Wang, T., Schoeberl, M. R., Oman, L. D., Douglass, A. R., Butler, A. H., Rosenlof, K. H., Davis, S. M., and Portmann, R. W.: Transport of ice into the stratosphere and the humidification of the stratosphere over the 21st century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 43, 2323–2329, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL067991, 2016.
Diallo, M., Riese, M., Birner, T., Konopka, P., Müller, R., Hegglin, M. I., Santee, M. L., Baldwin, M., Legras, B., and Ploeger, F.: Response of stratospheric water vapor and ozone to the unusual timing of El Niño and the QBO disruption in 2015–2016, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 13055–13073, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-13055-2018, 2018.
Dinh, T., Podglajen, A., Hertzog, A., Legras, B., and Plougonven, R.: Effect of gravity wave temperature fluctuations on homogeneous ice nucleation in the tropical tropopause layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 35–46, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-35-2016, 2016.
Dlugokencky, E. J., Bruhwiler, L., White, J. W. C., Emmons, L. K., Novelli, P. C., Montzka, S. A., Masarie, K. A., Lang, P. M., Crotwell, A. M., Miller, J. B., and Gatti, L. V.: Observational constraints on recent increases in the atmospheric CH4 burden, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL039780, 2009.
Dunkerton, T. J.: The role of gravity waves in the quasi-biennial oscillation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 26053–26076, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD02999, 1997.
Durry, G. and Megie, G.: Atmospheric CH4 and H2O monitoring with near-infrared InGaAs laser diodes by the SDLA, a balloonborne spectrometer for tropospheric and stratospheric in situ measurements, Appl. Optics, 38, 7342–7354, https://doi.org/10.1364/AO.38.007342, 1999.
Durry, G., Amarouche, N., Joly, L., Liu, X., Parvitte, B., and Zéninari, V.: Laser diode spectroscopy of H2O at 2.63 µm for atmospheric applications, Appl. Phys. B, 90, 573–580, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00340-007-2884-3, 2008.
Fathullah, N. Z., Lubis, S. W., and Setiawan, S.: Characteristics of Kelvin waves and Mixed Rossby-Gravity waves in opposite QBO phases, IOP C. Ser. Earth Env., 54, 012032, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/54/1/012032, 2017.
Forster, P. M. de F., and Shine, K. P.: Stratospheric water vapour changes as a possible contributor to observed stratospheric cooling, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 3309–3312, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL010487, 1999.
Frey, W., Schofield, R., Hoor, P., Kunkel, D., Ravegnani, F., Ulanovsky, A., Viciani, S., D'Amato, F., and Lane, T. P.: The impact of overshooting deep convection on local transport and mixing in the tropical upper troposphere/lower stratosphere (UTLS), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 6467–6486, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-6467-2015, 2015.
Fueglistaler, S., Bonazzola, M., Haynes, P. H., and Peter, T.: Stratospheric water vapor predicted from the Lagrangian temperature history of air entering the stratosphere in the tropics, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JD005516, 2005.
Fueglistaler, S., Dessler, A. E., Dunkerton, T. J., Folkins, I., Fu, Q., and Mote, P. W.: Tropical tropopause layer, Rev. Geophys., 47, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008RG000267, 2009.
Gettelman, A., Holton, J. R., and Douglass, A. R.: Simulations of water vapor in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 105, 9003–9023, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JD901133, 2000.
Ghysels, M., Gomez, L., Cousin, J., Amarouche, N., Jost, H., and Durry, G.: Spectroscopy of CH4 with a difference-frequency generation laser at 3.3 micron for atmospheric applications, Appl. Phys. B, 104, 989–1000, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00340-011-4665-2, 2011.
Ghysels, M., Durry, G., Amarouche, N., Cousin, J., Joly, L., Riviere, E. D., and Beaumont, L.: A lightweight balloon borne laser diode sensor for the in situ measurement of CO2 at 2.68 micron in the upper troposphere and the lower stratosphere, Applied Physics B, 107, 1, 213–220, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00340-012-4887-y, 2012.
Ghysels, M., Durry, G., and Amarouche, N.: Pressure-broadening and narrowing coefficients and temperature dependence measurements of CO2 at 2.68μm by laser diode absorption spectroscopy for atmospheric applications, Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 07, 55–61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2013.01.042, 2013.
Ghysels, M., Durry, G., and Carbone, S.: STRATEOLE2 - C0: pico-SDLA, GSMA/URCA/CNRS [data set], https://strateole2.aeris-data.fr/catalogue (last access: 31 August 2025), 2022.
Ghysels, M., Gomez, L., Cousin, J., Tran, H., Amarouche, N., Engel, A., Levin, I., and Durry, G.: Temperature dependence of air-broadening, air-narrowing and line-mixing coefficients of the methane (R(6), ν3) manifold for atmospheric applications, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf., 133, 206–216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2013.08.003, 2014.
Grosvenor, D. P., Choularton, T. W., Coe, H., and Held, G.: A study of the effect of overshooting deep convection on the water content of the TTL and lower stratosphere from Cloud Resolving Model simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4977–5002, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-4977-2007, 2007.
Hassim, M. E. E. and Lane, T. P.: A model study on the influence of overshooting convection on TTL water vapour, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 9833–9849, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-9833-2010, 2010.
Hurst, D. F., Oltmans, S. J., Vömel, H., Rosenlof, K. H., Davis, S. M., Ray, E. A., Hall, E. G., and Jordan, A. F.: Stratospheric water vapor trends over Boulder, Colorado: Analysis of the 30 year Boulder record, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D02306, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015065, 2011.
Hurst, D. F., Read, W. G., Vömel, H., Selkirk, H. B., Rosenlof, K. H., Davis, S. M., Hall, E. G., Jordan, A. F., and Oltmans, S. J.: Recent divergences in stratospheric water vapor measurements by frost point hygrometers and the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 4447–4457, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-4447-2016, 2016.
Iwasaki, S., Shibata, T., Nakamoto, J., Okamoto, H., Ishimoto, H., and Kubota, H.: Characteristics of deep convection measured by using the A-train constellation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013000, 2010.
Jensen, E. and Pfister, L.: Transport and freeze-drying in the tropical tropopause layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, 2003JD004022, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JD004022, 2004.
Jewtoukoff, V., Hertzog, A., Plougonven, R., Cámara, A. de la, and Lott, F.: Comparison of Gravity Waves in the Southern Hemisphere Derived from Balloon Observations and the ECMWF Analyses, J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 3449–3468, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0324.1, 2015.
Kouki, M., Hiroshi, S., Ryo, Y., and Toshiharu, I.: Algorithm theoretical basis document for cloud top height product, Meteorolgical Satellite Center Technical Note, https://www.data.jma.go.jp/mscweb/technotes/msctechrep61-3.pdf (last access: 19 June 2019), 2016.
Lambert, A., Read, W., and Livesey, N.: MLS/Aura Level 2 Water Vapor (H2O) Mixing Ratio V005, Goddard Earth Sciences Data and Information Services Center (GES DISC) [data set], https://doi.org/10.5067/Aura/MLS/DATA2508, 2020.
Le Gléau, H.: User Manual for the Cloud Product Processors of the NWC/GEO: Science Part, NWC/CDOP3/GEO/MF-CMS/SCI/UM/Cloud, Issue 1.0, Météo-France/Centre de Météorologie Spatiale, Lannion, 21 January 2019.
Liu, X. M., Rivière, E. D., Marécal, V., Durry, G., Hamdouni, A., Arteta, J., and Khaykin, S.: Stratospheric water vapour budget and convection overshooting the tropopause: modelling study from SCOUT-AMMA, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 8267–8286, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-8267-2010, 2010.
Livesey, N. J., Read, W. G., Wagner, P. A., Froidevaux, L., Lambert, A., Manney, G. L., Millán Valle, L. F., Pumphrey, H. C., Santee, M. L., Schwartz, M. J., Wang, S., Fuller, R. A., Jarnot, R. F., Knosp, B. W., Martinez, E., and Lay, R. R.: Version 4.2x Level 2 and 3 data quality and description document, Tech. Rep. No. JPL D-33509 Rev. E, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 2020.
Livesey, N. J., Read, W. G., Wagner, P. A., Froidevaux, L., Santee, M. L., Schwartz, M. J., Lambert, A., Valle, L. F. M., Pumphrey, H. C., Manney, G. L., Fuller, R. A., Jarnot, R. F., Knosp, B. W., and Lay, R. R.: Version 5.0x Level 2 and 3 data quality and description document, Tech. Rep. JPL D-105336 Rev. B, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, https://mls.jpl.nasa.gov/data/v5-0_data_quality_document.pdf (last access: 26 May 2023), 2022.
NOAA: HYSPLIT (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) model, NOAA ARL READY, https://www.ready.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.php (last access: October 2024), 2024.
Noël, S., Weigel, K., Bramstedt, K., Rozanov, A., Weber, M., Bovensmann, H., and Burrows, J. P.: Water vapour and methane coupling in the stratosphere observed using SCIAMACHY solar occultation measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 4463–4476, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-4463-2018, 2018.
Oltmans, S. J., Vömel, H., Hofmann, D. J., Rosenlof, K. H., and Kley, D.: The increase in stratospheric water vapor from balloonborne, frostpoint hygrometer measurements at Washington, D. C., and Boulder, Colorado, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3453–3456, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GL012133, 2000.
Oman, L., Waugh, D. W., Pawson, S., Stolarski, R. S., and Nielsen, J. E.: Understanding the Changes of Stratospheric Water Vapor in Coupled Chemistry – Climate Model Simulations, J. Atmos. Sci., 65, 3278–3291, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAS2696.1, 2008.
Pahlavan, H. A., Wallace, J. M., and Fu, Q.: Characteristics of Tropical Convective Gravity Waves Resolved by ERA5 Reanalysis, J. Atmos. Sci., 80, 777–795, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-22-0057.1, 2023.
Podglajen, A., Hertzog, A., Plougonven, R., and Žagar, N.: Assessment of the accuracy of (re)analyses in the equatorial lower stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 11166–11188, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021849, 2014.
Podglajen, A., Plougonven, R., Hertzog, A., and Legras, B.: A modelling case study of a large-scale cirrus in the tropical tropopause layer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 3881–3902, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-3881-2016, 2016.
Podglajen, A., Hertzog, A., Plougonven, R., and Legras, B.: Lagrangian gravity wave spectra in the lower stratosphere of current (re)analyses, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 9331–9350, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-9331-2020, 2020.
Preusse, P., Ern, M., Bechtold, P., Eckermann, S. D., Kalisch, S., Trinh, Q. T., and Riese, M.: Characteristics of gravity waves resolved by ECMWF, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 10483–10508, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-10483-2014, 2014.
Randel, W. and Park, M.: Diagnosing Observed Stratospheric Water Vapor Relationships to the Cold Point Tropical Tropopause, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 7018–7033, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD030648, 2019.
Rinsland, C. P., Chiou, L., Boone, C., Bernath, P., Mahieu, E., and Zander, R.: Trend of lower stratospheric methane (CH4) from atmospheric chemistry experiment (ACE) and atmospheric trace molecule spectroscopy (ATMOS) measurements, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Ra., 110, 1066–1071, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2009.03.024, 2009.
Rolph, G., Stein, A., and Stunder, B.: Real-time Environmental Applications and Display sYstem: READY, Environmental Modelling & Software, 95, 210–228, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2017.06.025, 2017.
Rosenlof, K., Oltmans, S., Kley, D., Russell III, J., Chiou, E., Chu, W., Johnson, D., Kelly, K., Michelsen, H., Nedoluha, G., Remsberg, E., Toon, G., and Mccormick, M.: Stratospheric Water Vapor Increases Over the Past Half-Century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1195–1198, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GL012502, 2001.
Rysman, J.-F., Claud, C., and Delanoë, J.: Monitoring Deep Convection and Convective Overshooting From 60° S to 60° N Using MHS: A Cloudsat/CALIPSO-Based Assessment, IEEE Geosci. Remote S., 14, 159–163, https://doi.org/10.1109/LGRS.2016.2631725, 2017.
Scherer, M., Vömel, H., Fueglistaler, S., Oltmans, S. J., and Staehelin, J.: Trends and variability of midlatitude stratospheric water vapour deduced from the re-evaluated Boulder balloon series and HALOE, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1391–1402, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-8-1391-2008, 2008.
Schoeberl, M. R., Jensen, E. J., Pfister, L., Ueyama, R., Wang, T., Selkirk, H., Avery, M., Thornberry, T., and Dessler, A. E.: Water Vapor, Clouds, and Saturation in the Tropical Tropopause Layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 3984–4003, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD029849, 2019.
Sheese, P. E., Walker, K. A., Boone, C. D., Bernath, P. F., Froidevaux, L., Funke, B., Raspollini, P., and von Clarmann, T.: ACE-FTS ozone, water vapour, nitrous oxide, nitric acid, and carbon monoxide profile comparisons with MIPAS and MLS, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Ra., 186, 63–80, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2016.06.026, 2017.
Solomon, S., Rosenlof, K. H., Portmann, R. W., Daniel, J. S., Davis, S. M., Sanford, T. J., and Plattner, G.-K.: Contributions of Stratospheric Water Vapor to Decadal Changes in the Rate of Global Warming, Science, 327, 1219–1223, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182488, 2010.
Stein, A. F., Draxler, R. R., Rolph, G. D., Stunder, B. J. B., Cohen, M. D., and Ngan, F.: NOAA's HYSPLIT Atmospheric Transport and Dispersion Modeling System, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00110.1, 2015.
Texier, H., Solomon, S., and Garcia, R. R.: The role of molecular hydrogen and methane oxidation in the water vapour budget of the stratosphere, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 114, 281–295, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711448002, 1988.
Tian, W. and Chipperfield, M. P.: Stratospheric water vapor trends in a coupled chemistry-climate model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL024675, 2006.
Ueyama, R., Jensen, E. J., Pfister, L., and Kim, J.-E.: Dynamical, convective, and microphysical control on wintertime distributions of water vapor and clouds in the tropical tropopause layer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 10483–10500, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023318, 2015.
Wang, Y., Su, H., Livesey, N., Santee, M., Froidevaux, L., Read, W., and Anderson, J.: The linkage between stratospheric water vapor and surface temperature in an observation-constrained coupled general circulation model, Clim. Dynam., 48, 2671–2683, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-016-3231-3, 2017.
Winker, D. M., Pelon, J. R., and McCormick, M. P.: CALIPSO mission: spaceborne lidar for observation of aerosols and clouds, P. Soc. Photo-Opt., III, 1–11, https://doi.org/10.1117/12.466539, 2003.
Winker, D. M., Vaughan, M. A., Omar, A., Hu, Y., Powell, K. A., Liu, Z., Hunt, W. H., and Young, S. A.: Overview of the CALIPSO Mission and CALIOP Data Processing Algorithms, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol, 26, 2310–2323, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JTECHA1281.1, 2009.
Yan, X., Wright, J. S., Zheng, X., Livesey, N. J., Vömel, H., and Zhou, X.: Validation of Aura MLS retrievals of temperature, water vapour and ozone in the upper troposphere and lower–middle stratosphere over the Tibetan Plateau during boreal summer, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 3547–3566, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-3547-2016, 2016.
Short summary
During the first two Strateole 2 campaigns, instruments were flown under super-pressure balloons at between 18 and 20 km altitude for several weeks at the Equator and performed in situ measurements of water vapour. This article describes the methodology used to quantify the modulation of water vapour by atmospheric waves and deep convective cases. This methodology allows us to bring to light the influence of atmospheric waves and extreme deep convection on the observed water vapour anomalies.
During the first two Strateole 2 campaigns, instruments were flown under super-pressure balloons...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint