Articles | Volume 23, issue 2
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-1259-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-1259-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
24 Jan 2023
Research article |
| 24 Jan 2023
| 24 Jan 2023
Monitoring sudden stratospheric warmings under climate change since 1980 based on reanalysis data verified by radio occultation
Ying Li
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
State Key Laboratory of Geodesy and Earth's Dynamics, Innovation
Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology (APM), Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
Gottfried Kirchengast
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Wegener Center for Climate and Global Change (WEGC) and Institute
of Physics, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
Marc Schwaerz
Wegener Center for Climate and Global Change (WEGC) and Institute
of Physics, University of Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria
Yunbin Yuan
State Key Laboratory of Geodesy and Earth's Dynamics, Innovation
Academy for Precision Measurement Science and Technology (APM), Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China
Related authors
Xinyu Zhang, Wenwu Ding, Xiangguang Meng, Ying Li, Yan Liu, and Yunbin Yuan
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5629, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5629, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
Short summary
Short summary
This study retrieves RO observations from the FY‑3E satellite using 1‑s undifferenced LEO clock corrections. Results are compared against those from 30‑s undifferenced and single‑difference approaches. The 1‑s clock corrections outperform the other two schemes, yielding the greatest improvement in bending‑angle profiles within the 40–60 km altitude range. These findings support future operational processing and archive reprocessing of all Fengyun GNSS occultation datasets.
Ying Li, Yan Liu, Wenwu Ding, Mi Liao, Xingliang Huo, and Jinying Ye
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 19, 659–678, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-659-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-659-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
Fengyun radio occultation products are useful for numerical weather prediction (NWP). However, its accuracy required to be further improved from middle stratosphere above. We developed a quality control scheme and evaluate the Fengyun bending angles’ quality. The new quality control scheme are useful in rejecting outliers and products’ quality have been well understood. The results are promising in improving the performance of Fengyun data in NWP and climate applications.
Xinyu Zhang, Wenwu Ding, Xiangguang Meng, Ying Li, Yan Liu, and Yunbin Yuan
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5629, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2026-5629, 2026
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
Short summary
Short summary
This study retrieves RO observations from the FY‑3E satellite using 1‑s undifferenced LEO clock corrections. Results are compared against those from 30‑s undifferenced and single‑difference approaches. The 1‑s clock corrections outperform the other two schemes, yielding the greatest improvement in bending‑angle profiles within the 40–60 km altitude range. These findings support future operational processing and archive reprocessing of all Fengyun GNSS occultation datasets.
Andreas Kvas, Gottfried Kirchengast, and Jürgen Fuchsberger
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 18, 1165–1184, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-1165-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-1165-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
The WegenerNet 3D Open-Air Laboratory for Climate Change Research in southeastern Austria observes the atmosphere from the surface up to an altitude of 10 km. A variety of different sensors measure precipitation, water vapor content, humidity, temperature, and cloud properties in high spatial and temporal resolution. This enables detailed analyses of weather phenomena in a changing climate, such as heavy rainfall events and thunderstorms.
Ying Li, Yan Liu, Wenwu Ding, Mi Liao, Xingliang Huo, and Jinying Ye
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 19, 659–678, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-659-2026, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-19-659-2026, 2026
Short summary
Short summary
Fengyun radio occultation products are useful for numerical weather prediction (NWP). However, its accuracy required to be further improved from middle stratosphere above. We developed a quality control scheme and evaluate the Fengyun bending angles’ quality. The new quality control scheme are useful in rejecting outliers and products’ quality have been well understood. The results are promising in improving the performance of Fengyun data in NWP and climate applications.
Irena Nimac, Julia Danzer, and Gottfried Kirchengast
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 265–286, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-265-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-265-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Due to the shortcomings of available observations, having accurate global 3D wind fields remains a challenge. A promising option is radio occultation (RO) satellite data, which enable the derivation of winds based on wind approximations. We test how well RO winds describe the ERA5 winds. We separate the total wind difference into the approximation bias and the systematic difference between the two datasets. The results show the utility of RO winds for climate monitoring and analyses.
Julia Danzer, Magdalena Pieler, and Gottfried Kirchengast
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 17, 4979–4995, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-4979-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-4979-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the potential of radio occultation (RO) data for climate-oriented wind field monitoring, focusing on the equatorial band within ±5° latitude. In this region, the geostrophic balance breaks down, and the equatorial balance approximation takes over. The study encourages the use of RO wind fields for mesoscale climate monitoring for the equatorial region, showing a small improvement in the troposphere when including the meridional wind in the zonal-mean total wind speed.
Josef Innerkofler, Gottfried Kirchengast, Marc Schwärz, Christian Marquardt, and Yago Andres
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 5217–5247, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5217-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5217-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Atmosphere remote sensing using GNSS radio occultation provides a highly valuable basis for atmospheric and climate science. For the highest-quality demands, the Wegener Center set up a rigorous system for processing low-level measurement data. This excess-phase processing setup includes integrated quality control and uncertainty estimation. It was successfully evaluated and inter-compared, ensuring the capability of producing reliable long-term data records for climate applications.
Irena Nimac, Julia Danzer, and Gottfried Kirchengast
Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2023-100, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2023-100, 2023
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
As global wind measurements are limited by low spatial coverage or lack of vertical profile information, radio occultation (RO) satellite data might be of help. Wind fields are indirectly retrieved using the geostrophic approximation. We first test how well the method performs, finding agreement better than 2 m/s in wind speed. In a second step, we investigate how good RO and reanalysis data compare. The results suggest that RO-derived wind fields provide added value for climate monitoring.
Karina von Schuckmann, Audrey Minière, Flora Gues, Francisco José Cuesta-Valero, Gottfried Kirchengast, Susheel Adusumilli, Fiammetta Straneo, Michaël Ablain, Richard P. Allan, Paul M. Barker, Hugo Beltrami, Alejandro Blazquez, Tim Boyer, Lijing Cheng, John Church, Damien Desbruyeres, Han Dolman, Catia M. Domingues, Almudena García-García, Donata Giglio, John E. Gilson, Maximilian Gorfer, Leopold Haimberger, Maria Z. Hakuba, Stefan Hendricks, Shigeki Hosoda, Gregory C. Johnson, Rachel Killick, Brian King, Nicolas Kolodziejczyk, Anton Korosov, Gerhard Krinner, Mikael Kuusela, Felix W. Landerer, Moritz Langer, Thomas Lavergne, Isobel Lawrence, Yuehua Li, John Lyman, Florence Marti, Ben Marzeion, Michael Mayer, Andrew H. MacDougall, Trevor McDougall, Didier Paolo Monselesan, Jan Nitzbon, Inès Otosaka, Jian Peng, Sarah Purkey, Dean Roemmich, Kanako Sato, Katsunari Sato, Abhishek Savita, Axel Schweiger, Andrew Shepherd, Sonia I. Seneviratne, Leon Simons, Donald A. Slater, Thomas Slater, Andrea K. Steiner, Toshio Suga, Tanguy Szekely, Wim Thiery, Mary-Louise Timmermans, Inne Vanderkelen, Susan E. Wjiffels, Tonghua Wu, and Michael Zemp
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 1675–1709, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-1675-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-1675-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Earth's climate is out of energy balance, and this study quantifies how much heat has consequently accumulated over the past decades (ocean: 89 %, land: 6 %, cryosphere: 4 %, atmosphere: 1 %). Since 1971, this accumulated heat reached record values at an increasing pace. The Earth heat inventory provides a comprehensive view on the status and expectation of global warming, and we call for an implementation of this global climate indicator into the Paris Agreement’s Global Stocktake.
Wouter Dorigo, Irene Himmelbauer, Daniel Aberer, Lukas Schremmer, Ivana Petrakovic, Luca Zappa, Wolfgang Preimesberger, Angelika Xaver, Frank Annor, Jonas Ardö, Dennis Baldocchi, Marco Bitelli, Günter Blöschl, Heye Bogena, Luca Brocca, Jean-Christophe Calvet, J. Julio Camarero, Giorgio Capello, Minha Choi, Michael C. Cosh, Nick van de Giesen, Istvan Hajdu, Jaakko Ikonen, Karsten H. Jensen, Kasturi Devi Kanniah, Ileen de Kat, Gottfried Kirchengast, Pankaj Kumar Rai, Jenni Kyrouac, Kristine Larson, Suxia Liu, Alexander Loew, Mahta Moghaddam, José Martínez Fernández, Cristian Mattar Bader, Renato Morbidelli, Jan P. Musial, Elise Osenga, Michael A. Palecki, Thierry Pellarin, George P. Petropoulos, Isabella Pfeil, Jarrett Powers, Alan Robock, Christoph Rüdiger, Udo Rummel, Michael Strobel, Zhongbo Su, Ryan Sullivan, Torbern Tagesson, Andrej Varlagin, Mariette Vreugdenhil, Jeffrey Walker, Jun Wen, Fred Wenger, Jean Pierre Wigneron, Mel Woods, Kun Yang, Yijian Zeng, Xiang Zhang, Marek Zreda, Stephan Dietrich, Alexander Gruber, Peter van Oevelen, Wolfgang Wagner, Klaus Scipal, Matthias Drusch, and Roberto Sabia
Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 25, 5749–5804, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5749-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-25-5749-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
The International Soil Moisture Network (ISMN) is a community-based open-access data portal for soil water measurements taken at the ground and is accessible at https://ismn.earth. Over 1000 scientific publications and thousands of users have made use of the ISMN. The scope of this paper is to inform readers about the data and functionality of the ISMN and to provide a review of the scientific progress facilitated through the ISMN with the scope to shape future research and operations.
Cited articles
Angerer, B., Ladstädter, F., Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Schwärz, M.,
and Kirchengast, G.: Quality aspects of the Wegener Center multi-satellite
GPS radio occultation record OPSv5.6, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 10, 4845–4863, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-10-4845-2017, 2017.
Anthes, R. A.: Exploring Earth's atmosphere with radio occultation: contributions to weather, climate and space weather, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4,
1077–1103, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-1077-2011, 2011.
Anthes, R. A., Bernhardt, P. A., Chen, Y., Cucurull, L., Dymond, K.F., Ector, D., Healy, S. B., Ho, S. P., Hunt, D. C., Kuo, Y.-H., Liu,H., Manning, K., McCormick, C., Meehan, T. K., Randel, W. J., Rocken, C., Schreiner, W. S., Sokolovskiy, S. V., Syndergaard, S., Thompson, D. C., Trenberth, K. E., Wee, T. K., Yen, N. L., and Zeng, Z.: The COSMIC/FORMOSAT-3 Mission-Early results, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 89, 313–333, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-89-3-313, 2008.
Ayarzagüena, B., Langematz, U., Meul, S., Oberländer, S., Abalichin,
J., and Kubin, A.: The role of climate change and ozone recovery for the
future timing of major stratospheric warmings, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40,
2460–2465, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50477, 2013.
Baldwin, M. P. and Thompson, D. W. J.: A critical comparison of stratosphere–troposphere coupling indices, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 135, 1661–1672, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.479, 2009.
Baldwin, M. P., Ayarzagüena, B., Birner, T., Butchart, N., Butler, A.
H., Charlton-Perez, A. J., Domeisen, D. I. V., Garfinkel, C. I., Garny, H.,
Gerber, E. P., Hegglin, M. I., Langematz, U., and Pedatella, M.: Sudden
stratospheric warmings, Rev. Geophys., 59, e2020RG000708, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020RG000708, 2020.
Biondi, R., Steiner, A. K., Kirchengast, G., and Rieckh, T.: Characterization of thermal structure and conditions for overshooting of tropical and extratropical cyclones with GPS radio occultation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 5181–5193, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-5181-2015, 2015.
Bosilovich, M. G., Kennedy, J., Dee, D., Allan, R., and O'Neill, A.: On the
Reprocessing and Reanalysis of Observations for Climate in Climate Science
for Serving Society, edited by: Asrar, G. and Hurrell, J., Springer, Dordrecht, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6692-1_3, 2013.
Brunner, L., Steiner, A. K., Scherllin-Pirscher, B., and Jury, M. W.: Exploring atmospheric blocking with GPS radio occultation observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 4593–4604, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-4593-2016, 2016.
Butler, A. H. and Gerber, E. P.: Optimizing the definition of a sudden
stratospheric warming, J. Climate., 31, 2337–2344, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-17-0648.1, 2018.
Butler, A. H., Seidel, D. J., Hardiman, S. C., Butchart, N., Birner, T., and
Match, A.: Defining sudden stratospheric warmings, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 96,
1913–1928, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00173.1, 2015.
Butler, A. H., Sjoberg, J. P., Seidel, D. J., and Rosenlof, K. H.: A sudden
stratospheric warming compendium, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 9, 63–76,
https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-9-63-2017, 2017.
Cattiaux, J. R., Vautard, R., Cassou, C., Yiou, P., and Codron, F.: Winter 2010 in Europe: a cold extreme in a warming climate, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, 114–122, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GL044613, 2010.
Charlton, A. J. and Polvani, L. M.: A new look at stratospheric sudden warmings: Part I: Climatology and modeling benchmarks, J. Climate., 20, 449–469, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI3996.1, 2007.
Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M. A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A. C. M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N.,
Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A. J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S.
B., Hersbacha, H., Hólm, E. V., Isaksena, L., Kållberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A. P., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de Rosnay, P., Tavolato, C., Thépaut J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: Configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 137,
553–597, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.828, 2011.
Dhaka, S. K., Kumar, V., Choudhary, R. K., Ho, S. P., Takahashi, M., and
Yoden, S.: Indications of a strong dynamical coupling between the polar and
tropical regions during the sudden stratospheric warming event January 2009,
based on COSMIC/FORMASAT-3 satellite temperature data, Atmos. Res., 166,
60–69, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.06.008, 2015.
ECMWF and C3S: ERA5 reanalysis data, European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), Reading, UK, ECMWF and C3S [data set], https://www.ecmwf.int/en/forecasts/dataset/ecmwf-reanalysis-v5 (full resolution; registered ECMWF member state users), https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/cdsapp#!/dataset/reanalysis-era5-pressure-levels (coarse resolution; general C3S users), last access: 15 June 2022.
EOPAC Team: GNSS Radio Occultation Record (OPS 5.6 2001–2020), Wegener Center, University of Graz, Graz, Austria, EOPAC Team [data set], https://doi.org/10.25364/WEGC/OPS5.6:2021.1, 2021.
Foelsche, U., Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Ladstädter, F., Steiner, A. K., and
Kirchengast, G.: Refractivity and temperature climate records from multiple
radio occultation satellites consistent within 0.05 %, Atmos. Meas. Tech.,
4, 2007–2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-2007-2011, 2011.
Forster, P., Storelvmo, T., Armour, K., Collins, W., Dufresne, J.-L., Frame,
D., Lunt, D. J., Mauritsen, T., Palmer, M. D., Watanabe, M., Wild, M., and
Zhang, H.: The Earth's energy budget, climate feedbacks, and climate
sensitivity (Chapter 7), in: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis,
Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Masson-Delmotte, V.,
Zhai, P., Pirani, A., Connors, S. L., Pean, S., Berger, N., Caud, Y., Chen, L., Goldfarb, M. I., Gomis, M., Huang, K., Leitzell, E., Lonnoy, J. B. R., Matthews, T. K., Maycock, C., Waterfield, T., Yelekci, O., Yu, R., and Zhou, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 923–1054, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/chapter/chapter-7/ (last access: 17 January 2023), 2021.
Garfinkel, C. I., Silverman, V., Harnik, N., Haspel, C., and Riz, Y.:
Stratospheric response to intraseasonal changes in incoming solar radiation,
J. Geophys.Res. Atmos., 120, 7648–7660, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023244, 2015.
Gerber, E. P., Baldwin, M. P., Akiyoshi, H., Austin, J., and Dan, S.:
Stratosphere-troposphere coupling and annular mode variability in
chemistry-climate models, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D00M06, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013770, 2010.
Gobiet, A., Kirchengast, G., Manney, G. L., Borsche, M., Retscher, C., and
Stiller, G.: Retrieval of temperature profiles from CHAMP for climate
monitoring: intercomparison with Envisat MIPAS and GOMOS and different
atmospheric analyses, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3519–3536,
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-7-3519-2007, 2007.
Hall, R. J., Mitchell, D. M., Seviour, W. J. M., and Wright, C. J.: Tracking
the stratosphere-to-surface impact of Sudden Stratospheric Warmings, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 126, e2020JD033881, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD033881, 2021.
Hersbach, H., Bell, W., Berrisford, P., Horányi, A., Muñoz-Sabater,
J., Nicolas, J., Radu, R., Schepers., D, Simmons, A., Soci, C., and Dee, D.:
Global reanalysis: goodbye ERA-Interim, hello ERA5, ECMWF Newslett., 159, 17–24, https://doi.org/10.21957/vf291hehd7, 2019.
Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi1, A.,
Muñoz-Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D.,
Simmons, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P.,
Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., De Chiara1, G., Dahlgren, P., Dee,
D., Diamantakis, M., Dragani, R., Flemming, J., Forbes, R., Fuentes, M.,
Geer, A., Haimberger, L., Healy, S., Hogan1,R.J., Hólm, E., Janisková, M., Keeley, S., Laloyaux, P., Lopez, P., Radnoti, G., De Rosnay, P., Rozum, I., Vamborg, F., Villaume, S., and Thépaut. J.-N.:
The ERA5 global reanalysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 146, 1999–2049,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803, 2020.
Hitchcock, P. and Shepherd, T. G.: Zonal-mean dynamics of extended recoveries from stratospheric sudden warmings, J. Atmos. Sci., 70, 688–707,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-12-0111.1, 2013.
Hitchcock, P. and Simpson, I. R.: The downward influence of stratospheric
sudden warmings, J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 3586–3876, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0012.1, 2014.
Holt, L. A., Randall, C. E., Peck, E. D., Marsh, D. R., Smith, A. K., and
Harvey, V. L.: The influence of major sudden stratospheric warming and
elevated stratopause events on the effects of energetic particle precipitation in WACCM, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 11636–11646,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JD020294, 2013.
Hu, J., Ren, R., and Xu, H.: Occurrence of winter stratospheric sudden warming events and the seasonal timing of spring stratospheric final warming, J. Atmos. Sci.,71, 2319–2334, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0349.1, 2015.
Johnson, K. W., Miller, A. J., and Gelman, M.: Proposed indices characterizing stratospheric circulation and temperature fields, Mon. Weather
Rev., 97, 565–570, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1969)097<0565:PICSCA>2.3.CO;2, 1969.
Jonah, O. F., de Paula, E. R., Kherani, E. A., Dutra, S. L. G., and Paes, R.
R.: Atmospheric and ionospheric response to sudden stratospheric warming of
January 2013, J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 119, 4973–4980, https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JA019491, 2014.
Kakoti, G., Kalita, B. R., Bhuyan, P. K., Baruah, S., and Wang, K.: Longitudinal and interhemispheric ionospheric response to 2009 and 2013 SSW
events in the African-European and Indian-East Asian sectors, J. Geophys.
Res.-Space, 125, e2020JA028570, https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JA028570, 2020.
Kirchengast, G.: Occultations for probing atmosphere and climate: Setting
the scene, in: Occultations for Probing Atmosphere and Climate, edited by:
Kirchengast, G., Foelsche, U., and Steiner, A. K., Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09041-1_1, 2004.
Klingler, R.: Observing Sudden Stratospheric Warmings with Radio Occultation
Data, with Focus on the Event 2009, MSc Thesis, University of Graz,
Graz, Austria, 85 pp., https://resolver.obvsg.at/urn:nbn:at:at-ubg:1-68069 (last access: 15 June 2022), 2014.
Kretschmer, M., Coumou, D., Agel, L., Barlow, M., Tziperman, E., and Cohen,
J.: More-persistent weak stratospheric polar vortex states linked to cold
extremes, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 99, 49–60, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0259.1, 2018a.
Kretschmer, M., Cohen, J., Matthias, V., Runge, J., and Coumou, D.: The
different stratospheric influence on cold-extremes in Eurasia and North
America, Clim. Atmos. Sci., 1, 44, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-018-0054-4, 2018b.
Kursinski, E. R., Hajj, G. A., Schofield, J. T., Linfield, R. P., and Hardy,
K. R.: Observing Earth's atmosphere with radio occultation measurements
using the Global Positioning System, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 23429–23465,
https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD01569, 1997.
Kuttippurath, J. and Nikulin, G.: A comparative study of the major sudden
stratospheric warmings in the Arctic winters 2003/2004–2009/2010, Atmos.
Chem. Phys., 12, 8115–8129, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-8115-2012, 2012.
Labitzke, K.: Stratospheric-mesospheric midwinter disturbances: A summary of
observed characteristics, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 9665–9678,
https://doi.org/10.1029/JC086iC10p09665, 1981.
Labitzke, K. and Kunze, M.: On the remarkable Arctic winter in 2008/2009, J.
Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, D00I02, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012273, 2009.
Ladstädter, F., Steiner, A. K., Schwärz, M., and Kirchengast, G.:
Climate intercomparison of GPS radio occultation, RS90/92 radiosondes and
GRUAN from 2002 to 2013, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 4, 1819–1834,
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-1819-2015, 2015.
Lehtonen, I. and Karpechko, A. Y.: Observed and modeled tropospheric cold
anomalies associated with sudden stratospheric warmings, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 121, 1591–1610, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023860, 2016.
Li, Y., Kirchengast, G., Schwaerz, M., Ladstädter, F., and Yuan, Y.-B.:
Monitoring Sudden Stratospheric Warmings using radio occultation: a new
approach demonstrated based on the 2009 event, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14,
2327–2343, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2327-2021, 2021.
Lin, J. T., Lin, C. H., Chang, L.C., Huang, H. H., Liu, J. Y., Chen, A. B.,
Chen, C. H., and Liu, C. H.: Observational evidence of ionospheric migrating
tide modification during the 2009 stratospheric sudden warming, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L02101, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL050248, 2012.
Loeb, N. G., Mayer, M., Kato, S., Fasullo, J. T., Zuo, H., Senan, R., Lyman, J. M., Johnson, G. C., and Balmaseda, M.: Evaluating Twenty-Year Trends in Earth’s Energy Flows From observations and reanalyses, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 127, e2022JD036686, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD036686, 2022.
Luntama, J.-P., Kirchengast, G., Borsche, M., Foelsche, U., Steiner, A.,
Healy, S., von Engeln, A., O'Clerigh, E., and Marquardt, C.: Prospects of
the EPS GRAS mission for operational atmospheric applications, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 89, 1863–1875, https://doi.org/10.1175/2008BAMS2399.1, 2008.
Manney, G. L., Lawrence, Z. D., Santee, M. L., Read, W. G., Livesey, N. J.,
Lambert, A., Froidevaux, L., Pumphrey, H. C., and Schwartz M. J.: A minor
sudden stratospheric warming with a major impact: Transport and polar
processing in the 2014/2015 Arctic winter, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42,
7808–7816, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GL065864, 2015.
McInturff, R. M.: Stratospheric warmings: Synoptic, dynamic and
general-circulation aspects, NASA Reference Publ., NASA-RP-1017, NASA, USA, 174 pp., https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19780010687.pdf
(last access: 15 June 2022), 1978.
Mitchell, D. M., Gray, L. J.,Anstey, J., Baldwin, M. P., and Charlton-Perez
A. J.: The influence of stratospheric vortex displacements and splits on
surface climate, J. Climate, 26, 2668–2682, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00030.1, 2013.
Nayak, C. and Yigit, E.: Variation of small-scale gravity wave activity in
the ionosphere during the major sudden stratospheric warming event of 2009,
J. Geophys. Res.-Space, 124, 470–488, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JA026048, 2019.
Noguchi, S., Kuroda, Y., Mukougawa, H., Mizuta, R., and Kobayashi, C.:
Impact of satellite observations on forecasting sudden stratospheric warmings, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2019GL086233, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL086233, 2020.
Parker, W. S.: Reanalyses and observations: What's the difference, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 97, 1565–1572, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00226.1, 2016.
Santer, B. D., Wigley, T., Boyle, J. S., Gaffen, D. J., Hnilo, J. J., and
Nychka, D.: Statistical significance of trends and trend differences in
layer-average atmospheric temperature time series, J. Geophys. Res., 105,
7337–7356, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999jd901105, 2000.
Scherhag, R.: Die explosionsartige Stratosphärenerwärmung des
Spätwinters 1951/52, Ber. Deut. Wetterdienst, 38, 51–63, 1952.
Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Kirchengast, G., Steiner, A. K., Kuo, Y.-H., and
Foelsche, U.: Quantifying uncertainty in climatological fields from GPS
radio occultation: an empirical-analytical error model, Atmos. Meas. Tech.,
4, 2019–2034, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-2019-2011, 2011a.
Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Steiner, A. K., Kirchengast, G., Kuo, Y.-H., and
Foelsche, U.: Empirical analysis and modelling of errors of atmospheric
profiles from GPS radio occultation, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 1875–1890,
https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-1875-2011, 2011b.
Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Steiner, A. K., Kirchengast, G., Schwaerz, M., and
Leroy, S. S.: The power of vertical geolocation of atmospheric profiles from
GNSS radio occultation, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 122, 1595–1616,
https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD025902, 2017.
Schoeberl, M. R.: Stratospheric warmings: Observations and theory, Rev.
Geophys., 16, 521–538, https://doi.org/10.1029/RG016i004p00521, 1978.
Schreiner, W., Rocken, C., Sokolovskiy, S., Syndergaard, S., and Hunt, D.:
Estimates of the precision of GPS radio occultations from the
COSMIC/FORMOSAT-3 mission, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L04808,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL027557, 2007.
Schwärz, M., Kirchengast, G., Scherllin-Pirscher, B., Schwarz, J.,
Ladstädter, F., and Angerer, B.: Multi-mission validation by satellite
radio occultation extension project–Final report, Tech. Rep. for ESA/ESRIN
No. 01/2016, Wegener Center, University of Graz, Graz, Austria, https://wegcwww.uni-graz.at/publ/wegcpubl/arsclisys/2016/Schwaerz-etal_MMValRO-FinRep_Dec2016.pdf (last access: 12 December 2021), 2016
Seviour, W. J. M., Mitchell, D. M., and Gray, L. J.: A practical method to
identify displaced and split stratospheric polar vortex events, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 40, 5268–5273, https://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50927, 2013.
Simmons, A., Soci, C., Nicolas, J., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Dragani, R.,
Flemming, J., Haimberger1, L., Healy, S., Hersbach, H., Horányi, A.,
Inness, A., Muñoz-Sabater, J., Radu, R., and Schepers, D.: Global
stratospheric temperature bias and other stratospheric aspects of ERA5 and
ERA5.1, ECMWF Tech. Memo. No. 859, ECMWF, https://doi.org/10.21957/rcxqfmg0, 2020.
Singh, R. P. and Pallamraju, D.: On the latitudinal distribution of mesospheric temperatures during sudden stratospheric warming events, J.
Geophys. Res.-Space, 120, 2926–2939, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JA020355, 2015.
Siskind, D. E., Eckermann, S. D., McCormack, J. P., Coy, L., Hoppel, K. W.,
and Baker, N. L.: Case studies of the mesospheric response to recent minor,
major, and extended stratospheric warmings, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D00N03,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014114, 2010.
Steiner, A. K., Lackner, B. C., Ladstädter, F., Scherllin-Pirscher, B.,
Foelsche, U., and Kirchengast, G.: GPS radio occultation for climate
monitoring and change detection, Radio Sci., 46, RS0D24,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2010RS004614, 2011.
Steiner, A. K., Ladstädter, F., Ao, C. O., Gleisner, H., Ho, S.-P.,
Hunt, D., Schmidt, T., Foelsche, U., Kirchengast, G., Kuo, Y.-H., Lauritsen,
K. B., Mannucci, A. J., Nielsen, J. K., Schreiner, W., Schwärz, M.,
Sokolovskiy, S., Syndergaard, S., and Wickert, J.: Consistency and structural uncertainty of multi-mission GPS radio occultation records, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 2547–2575, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-2547-2020, 2020a.
Steiner, A. K., Ladstädter, F., Randel, W. J., Maycock, A. C., Fu, Q.,
Claud, C., Gleisner, H., Haimberger, L., Ho, S.-P., Keckhut, P., Leblanc,
T., Mears, C., Polvani, L. M., Santer, B. D., Schmidt, T., Sofieva, V.,
Wing, R., and Zou, C.-Z.: Observed temperature changes in the troposphere
and stratosphere from 1979 to 2018, J. Climate., 33, 8165–8194,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-19-0998.1, 2020b.
Stocker, M., Ladstädter, F., and Steiner, A. K.: Observing the climate
impact of large wildfires on stratospheric temperature, Sci. Rep., 11, 22994,
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02335-7, 2021.
Sun, Y., Bai, W., Liu, C., Liu, Y., Du, Q., Wang, X., Yang, G., Liao, M.,
Yang, Z., Zhang, X., Meng, X., Zhao, D., Xia, J., Cai, Y., and Kirchengast,
G.: The FengYun-3C radio occultation sounder GNOS: a review of the mission
and its early results and science applications, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 11,
5797–5811, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-11-5797-2018, 2018.
Thompson, D. W. J., Baldwin, M. P., and Wallace, J. M.: Stratospheric
connection to northern hemisphere wintertime weather: implications for
prediction, J. Climate, 15, 1421–1428, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<1421:SCTNHW>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Tyrlis, E., Manzini, E., Bader, J., Ukita, J., Nakamura, H., and Matei, D.:
Ural blocking driving extreme Arctic sea ice loss, cold Eurasia, and
stratospheric vortex weakening in autumn and early winter 2016–2017, J.
Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 11313–11329, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019JD031085, 2019.
Van Loon, H., Jenne, R. L., and Labitzke, K.: Zonal harmonic standing waves,
J. Geophys. Res., 78, 4463–4471, https://doi.org/10.1029/JC078i021p04463, 1973.
Vignon, E. and Mitchell, D. M.: The stratopause evolution during different
types of sudden stratospheric warming event, Clim. Dynam., 44, 3323–3337,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2292-4, 2015.
Wickert, J., Reigber, C., Beyerle, G., König, R., Marquardt, C., Schmidt, T., Grundwaldt, L., Galas, R., Meehan, T. K., Melbourne, W. G., and Hocke, K.: Atmosphere sounding by GPS radio occultation: First results from CHAMP, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3263–3266, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013117, 2001.
Wickert, J., Beyerle, G., König, R., Heise, S., Grunwaldt, L., Michalak,
G., Reigber, C., and Schmidt, T.: GPS radio occultation with CHAMP and GRACE: A first look at a new and promising satellite configuration for global atmospheric sounding, Ann. Geophys., 23, 653–658, https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-23-653-2005, 2005.
WMO/IQSY.: International Years of the Quiet Sun (IQSY), 1964–1965: Alert
messages with special references to stratwarms, Secretariat of the WMO
WMO/IQSY Rep. 6, 19 pp., 1964.
Yoshida, K. and Yamazaki, K.: Tropical cooling in the case of stratospheric
sudden warming in January 2009: focus on the tropical tropopause layer,
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 6325–6336, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-6325-2011, 2011.
Yu, Y., Ren, R., and Cai, M.: Dynamic linkage between cold air outbreaks and
intensity variations of the meridional mass circulation, J. Atmos. Sci., 72, 3214–3232, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0390.1, 2015.
Yue, X., Schreiner, W. S., Lei, J., Rocken, C., Hunt, D. C., Kuo, Y.-H., and
Wan, W.: Global ionospheric response observed by COSMIC satellites during
the January 2009 stratospheric sudden warming event, J. Geophys. Res., 115,
A00G09, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JA015466, 2010.
Zhou, S., Miller, A. J., Wang, J., and Angell, J. K.: Downward-propagating
temperature anomalies in the preconditioned polar stratosphere, J. Climate, 15, 781–792, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<0781:DPTAIT>2.0.CO;2, 2002.
Short summary
We develop a new approach to monitor sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) events since 1980 and develop a 42-year SSW event climatology. Detection and evaluation results suggest that the new method is robust for SSW monitoring. We also found an increase in the duration of SSW main-phase warmings of about 5(±2) d over the three decades from the 1980s to the 2010s, raising the average duration from about 10 to 15 d, and the warming strength is also found increased.
We develop a new approach to monitor sudden stratospheric warming (SSW) events since 1980 and...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint