Articles | Volume 20, issue 20
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11767-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11767-2020
© Author(s) 2020. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Review article
| 
19 Oct 2020
Review article |
| 19 Oct 2020
| 19 Oct 2020
Review of experimental studies of secondary ice production
Environment and Climate Change Canada, Toronto, Canada
Thomas Leisner
Institute of Meteorology and Climate Research, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
Institut für Umweltphysik, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
Related authors
Zane Dedekind, Alexei Korolev, and Jason Aaron Milbrandt
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3007, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3007, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how airplane contrails form and persist under cold, moist conditions. Using computer simulations and real observations, we found that weather predicting models often underestimate moisture levels, limiting accurate trail prediction. Adjusting how ice grows in clouds allowed us to better simulate these contrails. Improving moisture representation in models can help predict the climate effects of these clouds.
Zhipeng Qu, Alexei Korolev, Jason A. Milbrandt, Ivan Heckman, Mélissa Cholette, Cuong Nguyen, and Mengistu Wolde
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-649, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-649, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines the impact of incorporating secondary ice production (SIP) parameterizations into high-resolution numerical weather prediction simulations for mid-latitude continental winter conditions. Aircraft in situ and remote sensing observations are used to evaluate the simulations. Results show that including SIP improves the representation of cloud and freezing rain properties, with its impact varying based on cloud regime, such as convective or stratiform.
Alexei Korolev, Zhipeng Qu, Jason Milbrandt, Ivan Heckman, Mélissa Cholette, Mengistu Wolde, Cuong Nguyen, Greg M. McFarquhar, Paul Lawson, and Ann M. Fridlind
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 11849–11881, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11849-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11849-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The phenomenon of high ice water content (HIWC) occurs in mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) when a large number of small ice particles with typical sizes of a few hundred micrometers is found at high altitudes. It was found that secondary ice production in the vicinity of the melting layer plays a key role in the formation and maintenance of HIWC. This study presents a conceptual model of the formation of HIWC in tropical MCSs based on in situ observations and numerical simulation.
Sergey Y. Matrosov, Alexei Korolev, Mengistu Wolde, and Cuong Nguyen
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 6373–6386, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-6373-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-6373-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A remote sensing method to retrieve sizes of particles in ice clouds and precipitation from radar measurements at two wavelengths is described. This method is based on relating the particle size information to the ratio of radar signals at these two wavelengths. It is demonstrated that this ratio is informative about different characteristic particle sizes. Knowing atmospheric ice particle sizes is important for many applications such as precipitation estimation and climate modeling.
Alexei Korolev, Paul J. DeMott, Ivan Heckman, Mengistu Wolde, Earle Williams, David J. Smalley, and Michael F. Donovan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 13103–13113, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-13103-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-13103-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The present study provides the first explicit in situ observation of secondary ice production at temperatures as low as −27 °C, which is well outside the range of the Hallett–Mossop process (−3 to −8 °C). This observation expands our knowledge of the temperature range of initiation of secondary ice in clouds. The obtained results are intended to stimulate laboratory and theoretical studies to develop physically based parameterizations for weather prediction and climate models.
Zhipeng Qu, Alexei Korolev, Jason A. Milbrandt, Ivan Heckman, Yongjie Huang, Greg M. McFarquhar, Hugh Morrison, Mengistu Wolde, and Cuong Nguyen
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 12287–12310, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-12287-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-12287-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Secondary ice production (SIP) is an important physical phenomenon that results in an increase in the cloud ice particle concentration and can have a significant impact on the evolution of clouds. Here, idealized simulations of a tropical convective system were conducted. Agreement between the simulations and observations highlights the impacts of SIP on the maintenance of tropical convection in nature and the importance of including the modelling of SIP in numerical weather prediction models.
Yongjie Huang, Wei Wu, Greg M. McFarquhar, Ming Xue, Hugh Morrison, Jason Milbrandt, Alexei V. Korolev, Yachao Hu, Zhipeng Qu, Mengistu Wolde, Cuong Nguyen, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, and Ivan Heckman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 2365–2384, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2365-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2365-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Numerous small ice crystals in tropical convective storms are difficult to detect and could be potentially hazardous for commercial aircraft. Previous numerical simulations failed to reproduce this phenomenon and hypothesized that key microphysical processes are still lacking in current models to realistically simulate the phenomenon. This study uses numerical experiments to confirm the dominant role of secondary ice production in the formation of these large numbers of small ice crystals.
Haoran Li, Alexei Korolev, and Dmitri Moisseev
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 13593–13608, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13593-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13593-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Kelvin–Helmholtz (K–H) clouds embedded in a stratiform precipitation event were uncovered via radar Doppler spectral analysis. Given the unprecedented detail of the observations, we show that multiple populations of secondary ice columns were generated in the pockets where larger cloud droplets are formed and not at some constant level within the cloud. Our results highlight that the K–H instability is favorable for liquid droplet growth and secondary ice formation.
Yongjie Huang, Wei Wu, Greg M. McFarquhar, Xuguang Wang, Hugh Morrison, Alexander Ryzhkov, Yachao Hu, Mengistu Wolde, Cuong Nguyen, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, Jason Milbrandt, Alexei V. Korolev, and Ivan Heckman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 6919–6944, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6919-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6919-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Numerous small ice crystals in the tropical convective storms are difficult to detect and could be potentially hazardous for commercial aircraft. This study evaluated the numerical models against the airborne observations and investigated the potential cloud processes that could lead to the production of these large numbers of small ice crystals. It is found that key microphysical processes are still lacking or misrepresented in current numerical models to realistically simulate the phenomenon.
Alexander Böhmländer, Larissa Lacher, David Brus, Konstantinos-Matthaios Doulgeris, Zoé Brasseur, Matthew Boyer, Joel Kuula, Thomas Leisner, and Ottmar Möhler
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 18, 3959–3971, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3959-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-18-3959-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Clouds and aerosol are important for weather and climate. Typically, pure water cloud droplets stay liquid until around −35 °C, unless they come into contact with ice-nucleating particles (INPs). INPs are a rare subset of aerosol particles. Using uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs), it is possible to collect aerosol particles and analyse their ice-nucleating ability. This study describes the test and validation of a sampling set-up that can be used to collect aerosol particles onto a filter.
Zane Dedekind, Alexei Korolev, and Jason Aaron Milbrandt
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3007, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3007, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how airplane contrails form and persist under cold, moist conditions. Using computer simulations and real observations, we found that weather predicting models often underestimate moisture levels, limiting accurate trail prediction. Adjusting how ice grows in clouds allowed us to better simulate these contrails. Improving moisture representation in models can help predict the climate effects of these clouds.
Zhipeng Qu, Alexei Korolev, Jason A. Milbrandt, Ivan Heckman, Mélissa Cholette, Cuong Nguyen, and Mengistu Wolde
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-649, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-649, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
This study examines the impact of incorporating secondary ice production (SIP) parameterizations into high-resolution numerical weather prediction simulations for mid-latitude continental winter conditions. Aircraft in situ and remote sensing observations are used to evaluate the simulations. Results show that including SIP improves the representation of cloud and freezing rain properties, with its impact varying based on cloud regime, such as convective or stratiform.
Alexander Julian Böhmländer, Larissa Lacher, Kristina Höhler, David Brus, Konstantinos-Matthaios Doulgeris, Jessica Girdwood, Thomas Leisner, and Ottmar Möhler
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-87, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-87, 2025
Revised manuscript under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
Clouds play a key role in weather and climate. Pure liquid water droplets are liquid until about -35 °C without the presence of a small subset of aerosols, ice-nucleating particles (INPs). These INPs lead to primary ice formation and therefore impact the phase of clouds. The dataset described herein provides INP concentration measurements at two altitudes. Connecting this data to synoptic conditions and ambient data might provide a better understanding of INPs in Finnish Lapland.
Feng Jiang, Harald Saathoff, Uzoamaka Ezenobi, Junwei Song, Hengheng Zhang, Linyu Gao, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 25, 1917–1930, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1917-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-1917-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The chemical composition of brown carbon in the particle and gas phase was determined by mass spectrometry. BrC in the gas phase was mainly controlled by secondary formation and particle-to-gas partitioning. BrC in the particle phase was mainly from secondary formation. This work helps to get a better understanding of diurnal variations and the sources of brown carbon aerosol at a rural location in central Europe.
Junwei Song, Georgios I. Gkatzelis, Ralf Tillmann, Nicolas Brüggemann, Thomas Leisner, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 13199–13217, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-13199-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-13199-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) and organic aerosol (OA) particles were measured online in a stressed spruce-dominated forest. OA was mainly attributed to the monoterpene oxidation products. The mixing ratios of BVOCs were higher than the values previously measured in other temperate forests. The results demonstrate that BVOCs are influenced not only by meteorology and biogenic emissions but also by local anthropogenic emissions and subsequent chemical transformation processes.
Alexei Korolev, Zhipeng Qu, Jason Milbrandt, Ivan Heckman, Mélissa Cholette, Mengistu Wolde, Cuong Nguyen, Greg M. McFarquhar, Paul Lawson, and Ann M. Fridlind
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 11849–11881, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11849-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-11849-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The phenomenon of high ice water content (HIWC) occurs in mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) when a large number of small ice particles with typical sizes of a few hundred micrometers is found at high altitudes. It was found that secondary ice production in the vicinity of the melting layer plays a key role in the formation and maintenance of HIWC. This study presents a conceptual model of the formation of HIWC in tropical MCSs based on in situ observations and numerical simulation.
Hengheng Zhang, Wei Huang, Xiaoli Shen, Ramakrishna Ramisetty, Junwei Song, Olga Kiseleva, Christopher Claus Holst, Basit Khan, Thomas Leisner, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 10617–10637, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-10617-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-10617-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study unravels how stagnant winter conditions elevate aerosol levels in Stuttgart. Cloud cover at night plays a pivotal role, impacting morning air quality. Validating a key model, our findings aid accurate air quality predictions, crucial for effective pollution mitigation in urban areas.
Junwei Song, Harald Saathoff, Feng Jiang, Linyu Gao, Hengheng Zhang, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 6699–6717, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-6699-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-6699-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study presents concurrent online measurements of organic gas and particles (VOCs and OA) at a forested site in summer. Both VOCs and OA were largely contributed by oxygenated organic compounds. Semi-volatile oxygenated OA and organic nitrate formed from monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes contributed significantly to nighttime particle growth. The results help us to understand the causes of nighttime particle growth regularly observed in summer in central European rural forested environments.
Hengheng Zhang, Christian Rolf, Ralf Tillmann, Christian Wesolek, Frank Gunther Wienhold, Thomas Leisner, and Harald Saathoff
Aerosol Research, 2, 135–151, https://doi.org/10.5194/ar-2-135-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/ar-2-135-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Our study employs advanced tools, including scanning lidar, balloons, and UAVs, to explore aerosol particles in the atmosphere. The scanning lidar offers distinctive near-ground-level insights, enriching our comprehension of aerosol distribution from ground level to the free troposphere. This research provides valuable data for comparing remote sensing and in situ aerosol measurements, advancing our understanding of aerosol impacts on radiative transfer, clouds, and air quality.
Johanna S. Seidel, Alexei A. Kiselev, Alice Keinert, Frank Stratmann, Thomas Leisner, and Susan Hartmann
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 5247–5263, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-5247-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-5247-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Clouds often contain several thousand times more ice crystals than aerosol particles catalyzing ice formation. This phenomenon, commonly known as ice multiplication, is often explained by secondary ice formation due to the collisions between falling ice particles and droplets. In this study, we mimic this riming process. Contrary to earlier experiments, we found no efficient ice multiplication, which fundamentally questions the importance of the rime-splintering mechanism.
Feng Jiang, Kyla Siemens, Claudia Linke, Yanxia Li, Yiwei Gong, Thomas Leisner, Alexander Laskin, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 2639–2649, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-2639-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-2639-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We investigated the optical properties, chemical composition, and formation mechanisms of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) and brown carbon (BrC) from the oxidation of indole with and without NO2 in the Aerosol Interaction and Dynamics in the Atmosphere (AIDA) simulation chamber. This work is one of the very few to link the optical properties and chemical composition of indole SOA with and without NO2 by simulation chamber experiments.
Yiwei Gong, Feng Jiang, Yanxia Li, Thomas Leisner, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 167–184, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-167-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-167-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
This study investigates the role of the important atmospheric reactive intermediates in the formation of dimers and aerosol in monoterpene ozonolysis at different temperatures. Through conducting a series of chamber experiments and utilizing chemical kinetic and aerosol dynamic models, the SOA formation processes are better described, especially for colder regions. The results can be used to improve the chemical mechanism modeling of monoterpenes and SOA parameterization in transport models.
Mohit Singh, Stephanie Helen Jones, Alexei Kiselev, Denis Duft, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 16, 5205–5215, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5205-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-16-5205-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We introduce a novel method for simultaneous measurement of the viscosity and surface tension of metastable liquids. Our approach is based on the phase analysis of excited shape oscillations in levitated droplets. It is applicable to a wide range of atmospheric conditions and can monitor changes in real time. The technique holds great promise for investigating the effect of atmospheric processing on the viscosity and surface tension of solution droplets in equilibrium with water vapour.
Feng Jiang, Junwei Song, Jonas Bauer, Linyu Gao, Magdalena Vallon, Reiner Gebhardt, Thomas Leisner, Stefan Norra, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 14971–14986, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14971-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-14971-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We studied brown carbon aerosol during typical summer and winter periods in downtown Karlsruhe in southwestern Germany. The chromophore and chemical composition of brown carbon was determined by excitation–emission spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The chromophore types and sources were substantially different in winter and summer. Humic-like chromophores of different degrees of oxidation dominated and were associated with molecules of different molecular weight and nitrogen content.
Sergey Y. Matrosov, Alexei Korolev, Mengistu Wolde, and Cuong Nguyen
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 6373–6386, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-6373-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-6373-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A remote sensing method to retrieve sizes of particles in ice clouds and precipitation from radar measurements at two wavelengths is described. This method is based on relating the particle size information to the ratio of radar signals at these two wavelengths. It is demonstrated that this ratio is informative about different characteristic particle sizes. Knowing atmospheric ice particle sizes is important for many applications such as precipitation estimation and climate modeling.
Alexei Korolev, Paul J. DeMott, Ivan Heckman, Mengistu Wolde, Earle Williams, David J. Smalley, and Michael F. Donovan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 13103–13113, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-13103-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-13103-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The present study provides the first explicit in situ observation of secondary ice production at temperatures as low as −27 °C, which is well outside the range of the Hallett–Mossop process (−3 to −8 °C). This observation expands our knowledge of the temperature range of initiation of secondary ice in clouds. The obtained results are intended to stimulate laboratory and theoretical studies to develop physically based parameterizations for weather prediction and climate models.
Zhipeng Qu, Alexei Korolev, Jason A. Milbrandt, Ivan Heckman, Yongjie Huang, Greg M. McFarquhar, Hugh Morrison, Mengistu Wolde, and Cuong Nguyen
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 12287–12310, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-12287-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-12287-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Secondary ice production (SIP) is an important physical phenomenon that results in an increase in the cloud ice particle concentration and can have a significant impact on the evolution of clouds. Here, idealized simulations of a tropical convective system were conducted. Agreement between the simulations and observations highlights the impacts of SIP on the maintenance of tropical convection in nature and the importance of including the modelling of SIP in numerical weather prediction models.
Fritz Waitz, Martin Schnaiter, Thomas Leisner, and Emma Järvinen
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 7087–7103, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-7087-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-7087-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Riming, i.e., the accretion of small droplets on the surface of ice particles via collision, is one of the major uncertainties in model prediction of mixed-phase clouds. We discuss the occurrence (up to 50% of particles) and aging of rimed ice particles and show correlations of the occurrence and the degree of riming with ambient meteorological parameters using data gathered by the Particle Habit Imaging and Polar Scattering (PHIPS) probe during three airborne in situ field campaigns.
Linyu Gao, Junwei Song, Claudia Mohr, Wei Huang, Magdalena Vallon, Feng Jiang, Thomas Leisner, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 6001–6020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-6001-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-6001-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We study secondary organic aerosol (SOA) from β-caryophyllene (BCP) ozonolysis with and without nitrogen oxides over 213–313 K in the simulation chamber. The yields and the rate constants were determined at 243–313 K. Chemical compositions varied at different temperatures, indicating a strong impact on the BCP ozonolysis pathways. This work helps to better understand the SOA from BCP ozonolysis for conditions representative of the real atmosphere from the boundary layer to the upper troposphere.
Magdalena Vallon, Linyu Gao, Feng Jiang, Bianca Krumm, Jens Nadolny, Junwei Song, Thomas Leisner, and Harald Saathoff
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 1795–1810, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1795-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-1795-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
A LED-based light source has been constructed for the AIDA simulation chamber at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. It allows aerosol formation and ageing studies under atmospherically relevant illumination intensities and spectral characteristics at temperatures from –90 °C to 30 °C with the possibility of changing the photon flux and irradiation spectrum at any point. The first results of photolysis experiments with 2,3-pentanedione, iron oxalate and a brown carbon component are shown.
Yongjie Huang, Wei Wu, Greg M. McFarquhar, Ming Xue, Hugh Morrison, Jason Milbrandt, Alexei V. Korolev, Yachao Hu, Zhipeng Qu, Mengistu Wolde, Cuong Nguyen, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, and Ivan Heckman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 2365–2384, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2365-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2365-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Numerous small ice crystals in tropical convective storms are difficult to detect and could be potentially hazardous for commercial aircraft. Previous numerical simulations failed to reproduce this phenomenon and hypothesized that key microphysical processes are still lacking in current models to realistically simulate the phenomenon. This study uses numerical experiments to confirm the dominant role of secondary ice production in the formation of these large numbers of small ice crystals.
Ulrich Platt, Thomas Wagner, Jonas Kuhn, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 6867–6883, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-6867-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-6867-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Absorption spectroscopy of scattered sunlight is extremely useful for the analysis of atmospheric trace gas distributions. A central parameter for the achievable sensitivity of spectroscopic instruments is the light throughput, which can be enhanced in a number of ways. We present new ideas and considerations of how instruments could be optimized. Particular emphasis is on arrays of massively parallel instruments. Such arrays can reduce the size and weight of instruments by orders of magnitude.
Julia Schneider, Kristina Höhler, Robert Wagner, Harald Saathoff, Martin Schnaiter, Tobias Schorr, Isabelle Steinke, Stefan Benz, Manuel Baumgartner, Christian Rolf, Martina Krämer, Thomas Leisner, and Ottmar Möhler
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 14403–14425, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-14403-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-14403-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Homogeneous freezing is a relevant mechanism for the formation of cirrus clouds in the upper troposphere. Based on an extensive set of homogeneous freezing experiments at the AIDA chamber with aqueous sulfuric acid aerosol, we provide a new fit line for homogeneous freezing onset conditions of sulfuric acid aerosol focusing on cirrus temperatures. In the atmosphere, homogeneous freezing thresholds have important implications on the cirrus cloud occurrence and related cloud radiative effects.
Haoran Li, Alexei Korolev, and Dmitri Moisseev
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 13593–13608, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13593-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-13593-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Kelvin–Helmholtz (K–H) clouds embedded in a stratiform precipitation event were uncovered via radar Doppler spectral analysis. Given the unprecedented detail of the observations, we show that multiple populations of secondary ice columns were generated in the pockets where larger cloud droplets are formed and not at some constant level within the cloud. Our results highlight that the K–H instability is favorable for liquid droplet growth and secondary ice formation.
Alexei A. Kiselev, Alice Keinert, Tilia Gaedeke, Thomas Leisner, Christoph Sutter, Elena Petrishcheva, and Rainer Abart
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 11801–11814, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11801-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-11801-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Alkali feldspar is the most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust and is often present in mineral dust aerosols that are responsible for the formation of rain and snow in clouds. However, the cloud droplets containing pure potassium-rich feldspar would not freeze unless cooled down to a very low temperature. Here we show that partly replacing potassium with sodium would induce fracturing of feldspar, exposing a crystalline surface that could initiate freezing at higher temperature.
Hengheng Zhang, Frank Wagner, Harald Saathoff, Heike Vogel, Gholam Ali Hoshyaripour, Vanessa Bachmann, Jochen Förstner, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2021-193, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-2021-193, 2021
Revised manuscript not accepted
Short summary
Short summary
The evolution and the properties of Saharan dust plume were characterized by LIDARs, a sun photometer, and a regional transport model. Comparison between LIDAR measurements, sun photometer and ICON-ART predictions shows a good agreement for dust arrival time, dust layer height, and dust structure but also that the model overestimates the backscatter coefficients by a factor of (2.2 ± 0.16) and underestimate aerosol optical depth by a factor of (1.5 ± 0.11).
Barbara Bertozzi, Robert Wagner, Junwei Song, Kristina Höhler, Joschka Pfeifer, Harald Saathoff, Thomas Leisner, and Ottmar Möhler
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 10779–10798, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10779-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10779-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Internally mixed particles composed of sulfate and organics are among the most abundant aerosol types. Their ice nucleation (IN) ability influences the formation of cirrus and, thus, the climate. We show that the presence of a thin organic coating suppresses the heterogeneous IN ability of crystalline ammonium sulfate particles. However, the IN ability of the same particle can substantially change if subjected to atmospheric processing, mainly due to differences in the resulting morphology.
Yongjie Huang, Wei Wu, Greg M. McFarquhar, Xuguang Wang, Hugh Morrison, Alexander Ryzhkov, Yachao Hu, Mengistu Wolde, Cuong Nguyen, Alfons Schwarzenboeck, Jason Milbrandt, Alexei V. Korolev, and Ivan Heckman
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 6919–6944, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6919-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-6919-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Numerous small ice crystals in the tropical convective storms are difficult to detect and could be potentially hazardous for commercial aircraft. This study evaluated the numerical models against the airborne observations and investigated the potential cloud processes that could lead to the production of these large numbers of small ice crystals. It is found that key microphysical processes are still lacking or misrepresented in current numerical models to realistically simulate the phenomenon.
Fritz Waitz, Martin Schnaiter, Thomas Leisner, and Emma Järvinen
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 3049–3070, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3049-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-3049-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A major challenge in the observations of mixed-phase clouds remains the phase discrimination and sizing of cloud droplets and ice crystals, especially for particles with diameters smaller than 0.1 mm. Here, we present a new method to derive the phase and size of single cloud particles using their angular-light-scattering information. Comparisons with other in situ instruments in three case studies show good agreement.
Julia Schneider, Kristina Höhler, Paavo Heikkilä, Jorma Keskinen, Barbara Bertozzi, Pia Bogert, Tobias Schorr, Nsikanabasi Silas Umo, Franziska Vogel, Zoé Brasseur, Yusheng Wu, Simo Hakala, Jonathan Duplissy, Dmitri Moisseev, Markku Kulmala, Michael P. Adams, Benjamin J. Murray, Kimmo Korhonen, Liqing Hao, Erik S. Thomson, Dimitri Castarède, Thomas Leisner, Tuukka Petäjä, and Ottmar Möhler
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 3899–3918, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-3899-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-3899-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
By triggering the formation of ice crystals, ice-nucleating particles (INP) strongly influence cloud formation. Continuous, long-term measurements are needed to characterize the atmospheric INP variability. Here, a first long-term time series of INP spectra measured in the boreal forest for more than 1 year is presented, showing a clear seasonal cycle. It is shown that the seasonal dependency of INP concentrations and prevalent INP types is driven by the abundance of biogenic aerosol.
Robert Wagner, Baptiste Testa, Michael Höpfner, Alexei Kiselev, Ottmar Möhler, Harald Saathoff, Jörn Ungermann, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 1977–1991, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1977-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-1977-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
During the Asian summer monsoon period, air pollutants are transported from layers near the ground to high altitudes of 13 to 18 km in the atmosphere. Infrared measurements have shown that particles composed of solid ammonium nitrate are a major part of these pollutants. To enable the quantitative analysis of the infrared spectra, we have determined for the first time accurate optical constants of ammonium nitrate for the low-temperature conditions of the upper atmosphere.
Michael Krayer, Agathe Chouippe, Markus Uhlmann, Jan Dušek, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 561–575, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-561-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-561-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We address the phenomenon of ice enhancement in the vicinity of warm hydrometeors using highly accurate flow simulation techniques. It is found that the transiently supersaturated zones induced by the hydrometeor's wake are by far larger than what has been previously estimated. The ice enhancement is quantified on the micro- and macroscale, and its relevance is discussed. The results provided may contribute to a (currently unavailable) parametrization of the phenomenon.
Isabelle Steinke, Naruki Hiranuma, Roger Funk, Kristina Höhler, Nadine Tüllmann, Nsikanabasi Silas Umo, Peter G. Weidler, Ottmar Möhler, and Thomas Leisner
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 11387–11397, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11387-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11387-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
In this study, we highlight the potential impact of particles from certain terrestrial sources on the formation of ice crystals in clouds. In particular, we focus on biogenic particles consisting of various organic compounds, which makes it very difficult to predict the ice nucleation properties of complex ambient particles. We find that these ambient particles are often more ice active than individual components.
Cited articles
Adkins, C. J.: The fragmentation and electrification of very small droplets,
Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 86, 186, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49708636807, 1960.
Auer, A. H.: Observations of Ice Crystal Nucleation by Droplet Freezing in Natural Clouds, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 4, 145–160, 1970.
Aufdermaur, A. N. and Mays, W. C.: Correlation between hailstone structure
and growth conditions, in: Proceeding of the International Conference on Cloud Physics, Tokyo, 24 May–1 June 1965, 281–284,
1965.
Aufdermaur, A. N. and Johnson D. A.: Charge separation due to riming in an
electric field, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 98, 369–382, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709841609,
1972.
Bacon, N. J., Swanson, B. D., Baker, M. B., and Davis, E. J.: Breakup of
levitated frost particles, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 13763–13775,
https://doi.org/10.1029/98JD01162, 1998.
Bader, M., Gloster, J., Brownscombe, J. L. Goldsmith, P.: The production of
sub-micron ice fragments by water droplets freezing in free fall or on
accretion upon an ice surface, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 100, 420–426,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710042513, 1974.
Baker, B. A.: On the Nucleation of Ice in Highly Supersaturated Regions of
Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 1904–1907,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1991)048<1905:OTNOII>2.0.CO;2,
1991.
Bauerecker, S., Ulbig, P., Buch, V., Vrbka, L., and Jungwirth, P.: Monitoring
ice nucleation in pure and salty water via high-speed imaging and computer
simulations J. Phys. Chem. C, 112, 7631–7636, 2008.
Beard, K. V: Ice initiation in warm-base convective clouds: An assessment of
microphysical mechanisms, Atmos. Res., 28, 125–152,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(92)90024-5, 1992.
Bentley, W. A.: Study of frost and ice crystals, Mon. Weather Rev., 35,
512–516, 1907.
Bentley, W. A. and Humphreys, W. J.: Snow Crystals, Dover Publications, New
York, 266 pp., 1962
Bigg, E. K.: The fragmentation of freezing water drop, Bull. l'Observatoire
du Puy-de-Dôme, N3, 65–69, 1957.
Blanchard, D. G.: A verification of the Bally-Dorsey theory of spicule
formation on sleet pellets, J. Meteorol., 8, 268–269,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1951)008<0268:AVOTBD>2.0.CO;2,
1951.
Brewer, A. W. and Palmer, H. P.: Condensation Processes at Low Temperatures,
and the Production of New Sublimation Nuclei by the Splintering of Ice,
Nature, 164, 312–313, https://doi.org/10.1038/164312a0, 1949.
Brownscombe, J. L. and Thorndike, N. S. C.: Freezing and Shattering of Water
Droplets in Free Fall, Nature, 220, 687–689, https://doi.org/10.1038/220687a0,
1968.
Cantrell, W. and Heymsfield, A. J.: Production of Ice in Tropospheric
Clouds: A Review, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 86, 795–808,
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-86-6-795, 2005.
Cheng, R. J.: Water Drop Freezing: Ejection of Microdroplets, Science,
170, 1395–1396, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3965.1395, 1970.
Chouippe, A., Krayer, M., Uhlmann, M., Dusek, J., Kiselev, A., and Leisner,
T.: Heat and water vapor transfer in the wake of a falling ice sphere and
its implication for secondary ice formation in clouds, New J. Phys., 21, 043043, https://doi.org/10.1088/1367-2630/ab0a94, 2019.
Choularton, T. W., Latham, J., and Mason, B. J.: A possible mechanism of ice
splinter production during riming, Nature, 274, 791–792,
https://doi.org/10.1038/274791a0, 1978.
Choularton, T. W., Griggs, D. J., Humood, B. Y., and Latham, J.: Laboratory studies
of riming, and its relation to ice splinter production, Q. J. Roy. Meteor.
Soc., 106, 367–374, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710644809, 1980.
Cooper, W. A.: Cloud physics investigations by the University of Wyoming in
HIPLEX 1977 Bureau of Reclamation Rep. No. AS119, Dept. of
Atmospheric Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, 1977.
Cotton, W. R., Tripoli, G. J., Rauber, R. M., Mulvihill, E. A.: Numerical Simulation
of the Effects of Varying Ice Crystal Nucleation Rates and Aggregation
Processes on Orographic Snowfall, J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol., 25, 1658–1680,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1986)025<1658:NSOTEO>2.0.CO;2, 1986.
Crawford, I., Bower, K. N., Choularton, T. W., Dearden, C., Crosier, J., Westbrook, C., Capes, G., Coe, H., Connolly, P. J., Dorsey, J. R., Gallagher, M. W., Williams, P., Trembath, J., Cui, Z., and Blyth, A.: Ice formation and development in aged, wintertime cumulus over the UK: observations and modelling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 4963–4985, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-4963-2012, 2012.
Crosier, J., Bower, K. N., Choularton, T. W., Westbrook, C. D., Connolly, P. J., Cui, Z. Q., Crawford, I. P., Capes, G. L., Coe, H., Dorsey, J. R., Williams, P. I., Illingworth, A. J., Gallagher, M. W., and Blyth, A. M.: Observations of ice multiplication in a weakly convective cell embedded in supercooled mid-level stratus, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 257–273, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-257-2011, 2011.
Crosier, J., Choularton, T. W., Westbrook, C. D., Blyth, A. M., Bower, K.
N., Connolly, P. J., Dearden, C., Gallagher, M. W., Cui, Z., and Nicol, J.
C.: Microphysical properties of cold frontal rainbands, Q. J. Roy. Meteor.
Soc., 140, 1257–1268, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2206, 2014.
Desai, N., Chandrakar, K. K., Kinney, G., Cantrell, W., and Shaw, R. A.:
Aerosol-mediated glaciation of mixed-phase clouds: Steady-state laboratory
measurements. Geophys. Res. Lett., 46, 9154–9162.
https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL083503, 2019.
Dong, Y. Y. and Hallett, J.: Droplet accretion during rime growth and the
formation of secondary ice crystals, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 115,
127–142, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711548507, 1989.
Dong, Y. Y., Oraltay, R. G., and Hallett, J.: Ice particle generation during
evaporation, Atmos. Res., 32, 45–53,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(94)90050-7, 1994.
Dorsey, N. E.: The Freezing of Supercooled Water, T. Am. Philos. Soc.,
38, 247–328, available at:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1005602 (last access: October 2020), 1948.
Dudetski, V. and Sidorov, I. : About structure of water droplets freezing
under different conditions, Journal of Russian Physical and Chemical
Society, 43, 340–343, 1911.
Dye, J. E. and Hobbs, P. V.: The Influence of Environmental Parameters on the
Freezing and Fragmentation of Suspended Water Drops, J. Atmos. Sci., 25,
82–96, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1968)025<0082:TIOEPO>2.0.CO;2, 1968.
Emersic, C. and Connolly, P. J.: Microscopic observations of riming on an
ice surface using high speed video, Atmos. Res., 185, 65–72,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.10.014, 2017.
Feuillebois, F., Lasek, A., Creismeas, P., Pigeonneau, F., and Szaniawski,
A.: Freezing of a subcooled liquid droplet, J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 169, 90–102.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1995.1010, 1995.
Field, P. R., Wood, R., Brown, P. R. A., Kaye, P. H., Hirst, E., Greenaway,
R., and Smith, J. A.: Ice Particle Interarrival Times Measured with a Fast
FSSP, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 20, 249–261,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<0249:IPITMW>2.0.CO;2,
2003.
Field, P. R., Heymsfield, A. J., and Bansemer, A.: Shattering and Particle
Interarrival Times Measured by Optical Array Probes in Ice Clouds, J. Atmos.
Ocean. Tech., 23, 1357–1371, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1922.1, 2006.
Field, P. R., Lawson, R. P., Brown, P. R. A., Lloyd, G., Westbrook, C., Moisseev, D.,
Miltenberger, A., Nenes, A., Blyth, A., Choularton, T., Connolly, P.,
Bühl, J., Crosier, J., Cui, Z., Dearden, C., DeMott, P., Flossmann, A. I., Heymsfield, A. J., Huang, Y. H., Kalesse, H., Kanji, Z. A., Korolev, A.,
Kirchgaessner, A., Lasher-Trapp, S., Leisner, T., McFarquhar, G., Phillips, V.,
Stith, J., and Sullivan, S.: Secondary Ice Production – current state of the
science and recommendations for the future, Meteor. Mon.,
58, 7.1–7.20, https://doi.org/10.1175/AMSMONOGRAPHS-D-16-0014.1, 2017.
Findeisen, W.: Über die Entstehung der Gewitterelek-trizität [On the
origin of lightning electricity], Meteorol. Z., 6, 201–221, 1940.
Findeisen, W. and Findeisen, E.: Untersuchungen über die
Eissplitterbildung an Reifschichten (Eio Beitrag zur Frage der Ents tebung
der Gewitterelekfrizität und zur Mikrostruktur der Cumulonirnben)
[Investigations on the ice splinters formation on rime layers (A contribution
to the problem of the origin of storm electricity and to the microstructure
of cumulonimbus], Meteorol. Z., 60, 145–154, 1943.
Foster, T. and Hallett, J.: A laboratory investigation of the influence of
liquid water content on the temperature dependence of secondary ice crystal
production during soft hail growth, in: Am. Met. Soc. Cloud Physics
Conference, Chicago, 15–18 November 1982, 123–126, 1982.
Fukuta, N. and Lee, H. J.: A Numerical Study of the Supersaturation Field
around Growing Graupel, J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 1833–1843,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1986)043<1833:ANSOTS>2.0.CO;2, 1986.
Furukawa, Y. and Shimada, W.: Three-dimensional pattern formation duringgrowth
of ice dendrites—its relation to universal law of dendritic growth, J. Cryst. Growth, 128, 234–239, 1993.
Gagin, A.: Effect of supersaturation on the ice crystal production by
natural aerosols, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 6, 175–185,
1972.
Gagin, A. and Nozyce, N.: The nucleation of ice crystals during the freezing
of large supercooled drops, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 18,
119–129, 1984.
Gardiner, B. A. and Hallett, J.: Degradation of In-Cloud Forward Scattering
Spectrometer Probe Measurements in the Presence of Ice Particles, J. Atmos.
Ocean. Tech., 2, 171–180, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1985)002<0171:DOICFS>2.0.CO;2, 1985.
Gayet, J.-F., Febvre, G., and Larsen, H.: The Reliability of the PMS FSSP in
the Presence of Small Ice Crystals, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 13,
1300–1310, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1996)013<1300:TROTPF>2.0.CO;2, 1996.
Gold, L. W.: Crack formation in ice plates by thermal shock, Can. J. Phys.,
4, 1712–1728, https://doi.org/10.1139/p63-172, 1963.
Griggs, D. and Choularton, T.: Freezing modes of riming drops with
application to ice splinter production, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 109,
243–253, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710945912, 1983.
Gupta, S. C. and Arora, P. R.: Analytical and numerical solutions of inward
spherical solidification of a superheated melt with radiative–convective
heat transfer and density jump at freezing front, Heat Mass Transfer, 27, 377–384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01600027, 1992.
Hallett, J.: Crystal Growth and the Formation of Spikes in the Surface of
Supercooled Water, J. Glaciol., 3, 698–704,
https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000017998, 1960.
Hallett, J.: Discussion of Douglas' paper, Meteor. Mon., 5,
18–170, 1963.
Hallett, J.: Experimental Studies of the Crystallization of Supercooled
Water, J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 671–682, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1964)021<0671:ESOTCO>2.0.CO;2, 1964.
Hallett, J. and Mossop, S. C.: Production of secondary ice particles during
the riming process, Nature, 249, 26–28, https://doi.org/10.1038/249026a0, 1974.
Hallett, J., Sax, R. I., Lamb, D., and Murty, A. S. R.: Aircraft measurements
of ice in Florida cumuli, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 104, 631–651,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710444108, 1978.
Heymsfield, A. and Willis, P.: Cloud Conditions Favoring Secondary Ice
Particle Production in Tropical Maritime Convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 71,
4500–4526, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0093.1, 2014.
Heymsfield, A. J.: On measurements of small ice particles in clouds,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L23812, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL030951, 2007.
Heymsfield, A. J. and Mossop, S. C.: Temperature dependence of secondary ice
crystal production during soft hail growth by riming, Q. J. Roy. Meteor.
Soc., 110, 765–770, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711046512, 1984.
Hindmarsh, J. P., Russell, A. B., and Chen, X. D.: Experimental and numerical
analysis of the temperature transition of a suspended freezing water
droplet, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran., 46, 1199–1213, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0017-9310(02)00399-X, 2003.
Hindmarsh, J. P., Wilson, D. I., and Johns, M. L.: Using magnetic resonance to
validate predictions of the solid fraction formed during recalescence of
freezing drops, Int. J. Heat Mass Tran., 48,
1017–1021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2004.09.028, 2005.
Hobbs, P. V: Ice Multiplication in Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 315–318,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1969)026<0315:IMIC>2.0.CO;2,
1969.
Hobbs, P. V.: Microdroplets and Water Drop Freezing,
Science, 173, 849, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.173.3999.849, 1971.
Hobbs, P. V. and Alkezweeny, A. J.: The Fragmentation of Freezing Water
Droplets in Free Fall, J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 881–888,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1968)025<0881:TFOFWD>2.0.CO;2,
1968.
Hobbs, P. V and Burrows, D. A.: The Electrification of an Ice Sphere Moving
through Natural Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 23, 757–763,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1966)023<0757:TEOAIS>2.0.CO;2,
1966.
Hobbs, P. V. and Farber, R.: Fragmentation of ice particles in clouds,
Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 6, 245–258, 1972.
Hobbs, P. V. and Rangno, A. L.: Ice Particle Concentrations in Clouds, J.
Atmos. Sci., 42, 2523–2549, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1985)042<2523:IPCIC>2.0.CO;2, 1985.
Hobbs, P. V. and Rangno, A. L.: Rapid Development of High Ice Particle
Concentrations in Small Polar Maritime Cumuliform Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci.,
47, 2710–2722, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1990)047<2710:RDOHIP>2.0.CO;2, 1989.
Iwabuchi, T. and Magono, C.: A Laboratory Experiment on the Freezing
Electrification of Freely Falling Water Droplets, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn.,
53, 393–401, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.53.6_393, 1975.
Jackson, R. C., McFarquhar, G. M., Stith, J., Beals, M., Shaw, R.,
Jensen, J., Fugal, J., and Korolev, A.: An assessment
of the impact of anti-shattering tips and artifact removal techniques on
cloud ice size distributions measured by the 2D Cloud Probe, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 31, 2567–2590, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-13-00239.1, 2015
Jensen, E. J., Lawson, P., Baker, B., Pilson, B., Mo, Q., Heymsfield, A. J., Bansemer, A., Bui, T. P., McGill, M., Hlavka, D., Heymsfield, G., Platnick, S., Arnold, G. T., and Tanelli, S.: On the importance of small ice crystals in tropical anvil cirrus, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5519–5537, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-5519-2009, 2009.
Jiusto, J. E. and Weickmann, H. K.: types of snowfall, B. Am. Meteorol.
Soc., 54, 1148–1162, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1973)054<1148:TOS>2.0.CO;2, 1973.
Johnson, D. A. and Hallett, J.: Freezing and shattering of supercooled water
drops, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 94, 468–482,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709440204, 1968.
Kachurin, L. G. and Bekryaev, V. I.: Investigation of the electrification of
crystallizing water, Dokl. Akad. Nauk. SSSR, 130, 57–60, 1960.
Kallungal,
J. P. and Barduhn, A. J.: Growth rate of an ice crystal in subcooled pure water, AiChe J., 23, 294–303,
https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690230312, 1977.
Kanji, Z. A., Ladino, L. A., Wex, H., Boose, Y., Burkert-Kohn, M., Cziczo,
D. J., and Krämer, M.: Overview of Ice Nucleating Particles, Meteor.
Mon., 58, 1.1–1.33, https://doi.org/10.1175/AMSMONOGRAPHS-D-16-0006.1, 2017.
Keinert, A., Spannagel, D., Leisner, T., and Kiselev, A.: Secondary ice production upon freezing of freely falling drizzle droplets, J. Atmos. Sci., 77, 2959–2967, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-20-0081.1, 2020.
Keppas, S. C., Crosier, J., Choularton, T. W., and Bower, K. N.: Ice lollies:
An ice particle generated in supercooled conveyor belts, Geophys. Res.
Lett., 44, 5222–5230, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL073441, 2017.
Kikuchi, K. and Uyeda, H.: On Snow Crystals of Spatial Dendritic Type, J.
Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 57, 282–287,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.57.3_282, 1979.
King, W. D.: Freezing Rates of Water Droplets, J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 403–408,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0403:FROWD>2.0.CO;2, 1975
King, W. D. and Fletcher, N. H.: Pressures and stresses in freezing water
drops, J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 6, 2157–2173,
https://doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/6/18/302, 1973.
King, W. D. and Fletcher, N. H.: Thermal Shock as an Ice Multiplication
Mechanism. Part I. Theory, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 85–96,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<0085:TSAAIM>2.0.CO;2,
1976a.
King, W. D. and Fletcher, N. H.: Thermal Shock as an Ice Multiplication
Mechanism. Part II. Experimental, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 97–102,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<0097:tsaaim>2.0.co;2,
1976b.
Knight, C. A.: Ice Growth from the Vapor at −5 ∘C, J. Atmos.
Sci., 69, 2031–2040, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-11-0287.1, 2012.
Knollenberg, R. G.: Techniques for probing cloud microstructure, in: Clouds
their Formation, Optical Properties, and Effects, edited by: Hobbs, P. V and
Deepak, A., Academic Press, New York, 15–91,1981.
Koenig, L. R.: The Glaciating Behavior of Small Cumulonimbus Clouds, J.
Atmos. Sci., 20, 29–47, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1963)020<0029:TGBOSC>2.0.CO;2, 1963.
Koenig, L. R.: Drop Freezing Through Drop Breakup, J. Atmos. Sci., 22,
448–451, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022<0448:DFTDB>2.0.CO;2, 1965.
Kolomeychuk, R. J., McKay, D. C., and Iribarne, J. V.: The Fragmentation and
Electrification of Freezing Drops, J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 974–979,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1975)032<0974:TFAEOF>2.0.CO;2,
1975.
Korolev, A. and Field, P. R.: Assessment of the performance of the inter-arrival time algorithm to identify ice shattering artifacts in cloud particle probe measurements, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 761–777, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-761-2015, 2015.
Korolev, A., Heckman, I., Wolde, M., Ackerman, A. S., Fridlind, A. M., Ladino, L. A., Lawson, R. P., Milbrandt, J., and Williams, E.: A new look at the environmental conditions favorable to secondary ice production, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 1391–1429, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-1391-2020, 2020.
Korolev, A. V.: Reconstruction of the Sizes of Spherical Particles from
Their Shadow Images. Part I: Theoretical Considerations, J. Atmos. Ocean.
Tech., 24, 376–389, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1980.1, 2007.
Korolev, A. V and Isaac, G. A.: Observations of sublimating ice particles in
clouds, in: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Clouds and
Precipitation, 19–23 July, Bologna, Italy , 808–811, 2004.
Korolev, A. V. and Isaac, G. A.: Shattering during sampling by OAPs and HVPS.
Part 1: Snow particles, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 22, 528–542,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH1720.1, 2005.
Korolev, A. V., Bailey, M. P., Hallett, J., and Isaac, G. A.: Laboratory and
in situ observation of deposition growth of frozen drops, J. Appl.
Meteorol., 43, 612–622, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2004)043<0612:LAISOO>2.0.CO;2, 2004.
Korolev, A. V., Emery, E. F., Strapp, J. W., Cober, S. G., Isaac, G. A.,
Wasey, M., and Marcotte, D.: Small Ice Particles in Tropospheric Clouds: Fact
or Artifact? Airborne Icing Instrumentation Evaluation Experiment, B. Am.
Meteorol. Soc., 92, 967–973, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010BAMS3141.1, 2011.
Korolev, A. V., Emery, E., and Creelman, K.: Modification and Tests of
Particle Probe Tips to Mitigate Effects of Ice Shattering, J. Atmos. Ocean.
Tech., 30, 690–708, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-12-00142.1, 2013a.
Korolev, A. V, Emery, E. F., Strapp, J. W., Cober, S. G., and Isaac, G. A.:
Quantification of the Effects of Shattering on Airborne Ice Particle
Measurements, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 30, 2527–2553,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-13-00115.1, 2013b.
Korolev, A. V. , McFarquhar, G., Field, P. R., Franklin, C., Lawson, P.,
Wang, Z., Williams, E., Abel, S. J., Axisa, D., Borrmann, S., Crosier, J.,
Fugal, J., Krämer, M., Lohmann, U., Schlenczek, O., Schnaiter, M., and
Wendisch, M.: Mixed-Phase Clouds: Progress and Challenges, Meteor. Mon., 58, 5.1–5.50, https://doi.org/10.1175/AMSMONOGRAPHS-D-17-0001.1, 2017.
Krayer, M., Chouippe, A., Uhlmann, M., Dušek, J., and Leisner, T.: On the ice-nucleating potential of warm hydrometeors in mixed-phase clouds, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2020-136, in review, 2020.
Kumai, M. and Itagaki, K.: Cinematographic study of ice crystal formation
in water, Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Ser. 2, 4, 235–46, 1953.
Ladino, L. A., Korolev, A., Heckman, I., Wolde, M., Fridlind, A. M., and
Ackerman, A. S.: On the role of ice-nucleating aerosol in the formation of
ice particles in tropical mesoscale convective systems, Geophys. Res. Lett.,
44, 1574–1582, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL072455, 2017.
Langer, J. S., Muller-Krumbhaar, H.: Theory of dendritic growth—I. Elements
of a stability analysis, Acta Metall. Mater., 26, 1681–1687,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6160(78)90078-0, 1978.
Langham, E. J. and Mason, B. J.: Heterogeneous and homogeneous nucleation
of supercooled water, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. A Mat., A247, 493–504, 1958.
Langmuir, I.: The Production of Rain by a Chain Reaction in Cumulus Clouds
at Temperatures above Freezing, J. Atmos. Sci., 5, 175–192,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1948)005<0175:TPORBA>2.0.CO;2,
1948.
Lasher-Trapp, S., Leon, D. C., DeMott, P. J., Villanueva-Birriel, C. M.,
Johnson, A. V, Moser, D. H., Tully, C. S., and Wu, W.: A Multisensor
Investigation of Rime Splintering in Tropical Maritime Cumuli, J. Atmos.
Sci., 73, 2547–2564, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-15-0285.1, 2016.
Latham, J. and Mason, B. J.: Generation of electric charge associated with
the formation of soft hail in thunderclouds, P. Roy. Soc. Lond. A Mat., 260,
237–249, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1961.0052, 1961.
Lauber, A., Kiselev, A., Pander, T., Handmann, P., and Leisner, T.: Secondary
Ice Formation during Freezing of Levitated Droplets, J. Atmos. Sci., 75,
2815–2826, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-18-0052.1, 2018.
Lawson, R. P.: Effects of ice particles shattering on the 2D-S probe, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 1361–1381, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-1361-2011, 2011.
Lawson, R. P., Woods, S., and Morrison, H.: The microphysics of ice and
precipitation development in tropical cumulus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 72,
2429–2445, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0274.1, 2015
Lawson, P., Gurganus, C., Woods, S., and Bruintjes, R.: Aircraft Observations
of Cumulus Microphysics Ranging from the Tropics to Midlatitudes:
Implications for a “New” Secondary Ice Process, J. Atmos. Sci., 74,
2899–2920, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-17-0033.1, 2017.
Lindenmeyer, C. S., Orrok, G. T., Jackson K. A., and Chalmers, B.: Rate of
growth of ice crystals in supercooled water, J. Chem. Phys., 27, 822–823,
1959.
Lloyd, G., Choularton, T. W., Bower, K. N., Gallagher, M. W., Connolly, P. J., Flynn, M., Farrington, R., Crosier, J., Schlenczek, O., Fugal, J., and Henneberger, J.: The origins of ice crystals measured in mixed-phase clouds at the high-alpine site Jungfraujoch, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 12953–12969, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-12953-2015, 2015.
López, M. L. and Ávila, E. E.: Deformations of frozen droplets
formed at −40∘C, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L01805, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL050185, 2012.
Ludlam, F. H.: The heat economy of a rimed cylinder, Q. J. Roy. Meteor.
Soc., 77, 663–666, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49707733410, 1951.
Macklin, W. C.: The Production of Ice Splinters During Riming, Nubila, 3,
30–33, 1960.
Macklin, W. C. and Payne, G.: A theoretical study of the ice accretion
process, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 93, 195–214. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709339606, 1967.
Macklin, W. C. and Payne, G. S.: Growth velocities of ice in supercooled
water and aqueous sucrose solutions, Philos. Mag., 17, 83–87, https://doi.org/10.1080/14786436808218182, 1968.
Macklin, W. C. and Payne, G. S.: The spreading of accreted droplets, Q. J.
Roy. Meteor. Soc., 95, 724–730, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709540606, 1969.
Macklin, W. C. and Ryan, B. F.: The Structure of Ice Grown in Bulk
Supercooled Water, J. Atmos. Sci., 22, 452–459,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1965)022<0452:TSOIGI>2.0.CO;2, 1965.
Macklin, W. C. and Ryan, B. F.: Habits of ice grown in supercooled water
and aqueous solutions, Philos. Mag., 14, 847–860,
https://doi.org/10.1080/14786436608211977, 1966.
Macklin, W. C. and Ryan, B. F.: Growth velocities of ice in supercooled
water and aqueous sucrose solutions, Philos. Mag., 17, 83-87,
https://doi.org/10.1080/14786436808218182, 1968.
Magono, C. and Aburakawa, H.: Experimental Studies of Snow Crystals of
plane type with Spatial Branches, Journal of the Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Ser. 7, Geophysics, 3, 85–97, available at: http://hdl.handle.net/2115/8680 (last access: October 2020), 1969.
Malkina, A. D. and Zak, E. G.: Mechanism of freezing of liquid droplets,
Transactions of the Central Aerological Observatory (Trudi TsAO), 9, 61–75,
1952.
Mason, B. J. and Maybank, J.: The fragmentation and electrification of
freezing water drops, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 86, 176–185,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49708636806, 1960.
McFarquhar, G. M., Um, J., Freer, M., Baumgardner, D., Kok, G. L., and Mace,
G.: Importance of small ice crystals to cirrus properties: Observations from
the Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment (TWP-ICE), Geophys.
Res. Lett., 34, L13803, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL029865, 2007.
McFarquhar, G. M., Ghan, S., Verlinde, J., Korolev, A., Strapp, J. W., Schmid, B., Tomlinson, J. M., Wolde, M., Brooks, S. D.,
Cziczo, D., Dubey, M. K., Fan, J., Flynn, C. R., Gultepe, I., Hubbe, J.,
Gilles, M. K., Laskin, A., Lawson, P., Leaitch, W. R., Liu, P., Liu, X.,
Lubin, D., Mazzoleni, C., Macdonald, A.-M., Moffet, R. C., Morrison, H.,
Ovchinnikov, M., Shupe, M. D., Turner, D. D., Xie, S., Zelenyuk, A., Bae,
K., Freer, M., Glen, A..: Indirect and Semi-Direct Aerosol Campaign: The
impact of Arctic aerosols on clouds, B. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 92, 183–201,
https://doi.org/10.1175/2010BAMS2935.1, 2011.
Meyers, M. P., Walko, R. L., Harrington, J. Y., and Cotton, W. R.: New RAMS cloud
microphysics parameterization. Part II: The two-moment scheme, Atmos. Res.,
45, 3–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095(97)00018-5, 1997.
Mossop, S. C.: Concentrations of Ice Crystals in Clouds, B. Amer.
Meteorol. Soc., 51, 474–479, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1970)051<0474:COICIC>2.0.CO;2, 1970.
Mossop, S. C.: Production of secondary ice particles during the growth of
graupel by riming, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 45–57,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710243104, 1976.
Mossop, S. C.: Some Factors Governing Ice Particle Multiplication in Cumulus
Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2033–2037,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<2033:SFGIPM>2.0.CO;2,
1978.
Mossop, S. C.: The mechanism of ice splinter production during riming, Geoph. Res. Lett., 7,
167–169, https://doi.org/10.1029/GL007i002p00167, 1980.
Mossop, S. C.: The Origin and Concentration of Ice Crystals in Clouds, B.
Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 66, 264–273,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1985)066<0264:TOACOI>2.0.CO;2,
1985a.
Mossop, S. C.: Secondary ice particle production during rime growth: The
effect of drop size distribution and rimer velocity, Q. J. Roy. Meteor.
Soc., 111, 1113–1124, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49711147012,
1985b.
Mossop, S. C. and Hallett, J.: Ice Crystal Concentration in Cumulus Clouds:
Influence of the Drop Spectrum, Science, 186, 632–634,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.186.4164.632, 1974.
Mossop, S. C., Ono, A., and Heffernan, K. J.: Studies of ice crystal in
natural clouds, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 3, 45–64, 1964.
Mossop, S. C., Cottis, R. E., and Bartlett, B. M.: Ice crystal concentrations
in cumulus and stratocumulus clouds, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 98, 105–123,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709841509, 1972.
Mossop, S. C., Brownscombe, J. L., and Collins, G. J.: The production of
secondary ice particles during riming, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 100,
427–436, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49710042514, 1974
Muchnik, V. M. and Rudko, J. S.: Peculiarities of freezing supercooled water
drops, Transactions of Ukrainian Hydro Meteorological Institute (Trudi UkrNIGMI), 26, 64–73, 1961.
Muchnik, V. M. and Rudko, J. S.: Processes of cooling and freezing of water
drops, Transactions of Ukrainian Hydro Meteorological Institute (Trudi UkrNIGMI), 31, 133–144, 1962.
Murray, W. A. and List, R.: Freezing of water drops, J. Glaciol., 11,
415–429, 1972
Nix, N. and Fukuta, N.: Nonsteady-State Kinetics of Droplet Growth in Cloud
Physics, J. Atmos. Sci., 31, 1334–1343,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1974)031<1334:NSKODG>2.0.CO;2,
1974.
Ohsaka, K., and Trinh, E. H.: Apparatus for measuringthe growth velocity of
dendritic ice in undercooled water, J. Cryst. Growth, 194, 138–142, 1998.
Ono, A.: Some Aspects of the Natural Glaciation Processes in Relatively Warm
Maritime Clouds, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 49A, 845–858,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.49A.0_845, 1971.
Ono, A.: Evidence on the nature of ice crystal multiplication processes in
natural cloud, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 6, 399–408, 1972.
Oraltay, R. G. and Hallett, J.: Evaporation and melting of ice crystals: A
laboratory study, Atmos. Res., 24, 169–189,
https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-8095(89)90044-6, 1989.
Pander, T.: Laboratory ice multiplication experiments in levitated
microdroplets, PhD dissertation, University of Heidelberg, https://doi.org/10.11588/heidok.00018784, 2015.
Pena, J. A., de Pena, R. G., and Hosler, C. L.: Freezing of Water Droplets in
Equilibrium with Different Gases, J. Atmos. Sci., 26, 309–314,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1969)026<0309:FOWDIE>2.0.CO;2,
1969.
Phillips, V. T. J., Patade, S., Gutierrez, J., and Bansemer, A.: Secondary
Ice Production by Fragmentation of Freezing Drops: Formulation and Theory,
J. Atmos. Sci., 75, 3031–3070, https://doi.org/10.1175/jas-d-17-0190.1, 2018.
Pitter, R. L. and Pruppacher, H. R.: A wind tunnel investigation of freezing
of small water drops falling at terminal velocity in air, Q. J. Roy. Meteor.
Soc., 99, 540–550, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709942111, 1973.
Prabhakaran, P, Kinney, G., Cantrell, W., Shaw, R. A., and Bodenschatz, E.:
High Supersaturation in the Wake of Falling Hydrometeors: Implications for
Cloud Invigoration and Ice Nucleation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 47, e2020GL088055,
https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL088055, 2020.
Pruppacher, H. R.: On the growth of ice crystals in supercooled water and
aqueous solution drops, Pure Appl. Geophys., 86, 186–195,
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00874894, 1967a.
Pruppacher, H. R.: Growth Modes of Ice Crystals in Supercooled Water and
Aqueous Solutions, J. Glaciol., 6, 651–662.
https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000019924, 1967b.
Pruppacher, H. R. and Klett, J. D.: Microphysics of clouds and
precipitation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 954 pp., 1997.
Pruppacher, H. R. and Schlamp, R. J.: A wind tunnel investigation on ice
multiplication by freezing of waterdrops falling at terminal velocity in
air, J. Geophys. Res., 80, 380–386, https://doi.org/10.1029/jc080i003p00380, 1975.
Puzanov, P. and Accuratov, V. I.: Towards formation mechanism of some types
of hail, Gidrologia i Meteorologia, N6, 29–33, 1952.
Rangno, A. L.: Fragmentation of Freezing Drops in Shallow Maritime Frontal
Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 65, 1455–1466, https://doi.org/10.1175/2007jas2295.1, 2008.
Reisner, J., Rasmussen, R. M., and Bruintjes, R. T.: Explicit forecasting of
supercooled liquid water in winter storms using the MM5 mesoscale model, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 1071–1107, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49712454804, 1998.
Rosinski, J., Langer, G., and Nagamoto, C. T.: On the effect of microdroplets
from the surface of a freezing water drop, J. Appl. Meteorol., 11, 405–406,
1972.
Rosinski, J., Nagamoto, C. T., and Kerrigan, T. C.: Heterogeneous nucleation
of water and ice in the transient supersaturation field surrounding a
freezing drop, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques, 9, 107–117, 1975.
Saunders, C. P. R. and Hosseini, A. S.: A laboratory study of the effect of
velocity on Hallett–Mossop ice crystal multiplication, Atmos. Res., 59,
3–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-8095(01)00106-5, 2001.
Schaefer, V. J.: Formation of Ice Crystals in Ordinary and Nuclei-Free Air,
Ind. Eng. Chem., 44, 1300–1304, https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50510a033, 1952.
Schaefer, V. S.: Condensed Water in the Free Atmosphere in Air Colder than
−40C, J. Appl. Meteor., 1, 481–488,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1962)001<0481:CWITFA>2.0.CO;2, 1962.
Schaefer, V. J. and Cheng, R. J.: The production of ice crystal fragments by
sublimation and electrification, Journal de Recherches Atmosphériques,
5, 5–10, 1971.
Schwarzenboeck, A., Shcherbakov, V., Lefevre, R., Gayet, J. F., Pointin, Y.,
and Duroure, C.: Indications for stellar-crystal fragmentation in Arctic
clouds, Atmos. Res., 92, 220–228, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.002, 2009.
Shaw, R. A., Cantrell, W., Chen, C., Chuang, P., Donahue, N., Feingold, G.,
Kollias, P., Korolev, A., Kreidenweis, S., Krueger, S., Mellado J. P.,
Niedermeier, D., Xue, L.: Cloud–Aerosol–Turbulence Interactions: Science
Priorities and Concepts for a Large-Scale Laboratory Facility, B. Amer.
Meteor. Soc., 101, E1026–E1035, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0009.1,
2020.
Shibkov, A. A., Golovin, Yu. I., Zheltov, M. A., Korolev, A. A., and Leonov, A. A.:
Morphology diagram of nonequilibrium patterns of ice crystals growing in
supercooled water, Physica A, 319, 65 – 79, 2003.
Shibkov, A. A., Zheltov, M.A., Korolev, A. A., Kazakov, A. A., Leonov, A. A.:
Crossover from diffusion-limited to kinetics-limited growth of ice crystals.
J. Cryst. Growth, 285, 215–227, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2005.08.007,
2005
Shupe, M. D., Matrosov, S. Y., and Uttal, T.: Arctic mixed-phase cloud
properties derived from surface-based sensors at SHEBA. J. Atmos. Sci., 63,
697–711, https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3659.1, 2006.
Stith, J. L., Avallone, L. M., Bansemer, A., Basarab, B., Dorsi, S. W., Fuchs, B., Lawson, R. P., Rogers, D. C., Rutledge, S., and Toohey, D. W.: Ice particles in the upper anvil regions of midlatitude continental thunderstorms: the case for frozen-drop aggregates, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 1973–1985, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-1973-2014, 2014.
Stott, D. and Hutchinson, W. C. A.: The electrification of freezing water
drops, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 91, 80–86, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.49709138711,
1965.
Tabakova, S., Feuillebois, F., and Radev S.: Freezing of a supercooled
spherical droplet with mixed boundary conditions, Proc. Roy. Soc. A-Math. Phy., 466,
1117–1134, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2009.0491, 2010.
Takahashi, C.: Deformations of Frozen Water Drops and Their Frequencies, J.
Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 53, 402–411,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.53.6_402, 1975.
Takahashi, C.: Relation between the Deformation and the Crystalline Nature
of Frozen Water Drops, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 54, 448–453,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.54.6_448, 1976.
Takahashi, C. and Yamashita, A.: Deformation and Fragmentation of Freezing
Water Drops in Free Fall, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 47, 431–436,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.47.6_431, 1969.
Takahashi, C. and Yamashita, A.: Shattering of Frozen Water Drops in a
Supercooled Cloud, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 48, 373–376,
https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.48.4_373, 1970.
Takahashi, T.: High ice crystal production in winter cumuli over the Japan
Sea, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 451–454, https://doi.org/10.1029/93GL00613, 1993.
Takahashi, T., Nagao, Y., and Kushiyama, Y.: Possible High Ice Particle
Production during Graupel–Graupel Collisions, J. Atmos. Sci., 52,
4523–4527, 1995.
Tavakoli, F., Stephen, H., Davis, S. H., and Kavehpour, H.P.: Freezing of
supercooled water drops on cold solid substrates: initiation and mechanism,
J. Coat. Technol. Res., 12, 869–875, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-015-9693-0, 2015
Uyeda, H. and Kikuchi, K.: Freezing Experiment of Supercooled Water Droplets
Frozen by Using Single Crystal Ice, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 56,
43–51, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj1965.56.1_43, 1978.
Vaillant de Guélis, T., Schwarzenböck, A., Shcherbakov, V., Gourbeyre, C., Laurent, B., Dupuy, R., Coutris, P., and Duroure, C.: Study of the diffraction pattern of cloud particles and the respective responses of optical array probes, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 12, 2513–2529, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-12-2513-2019, 2019.
Vardiman, L.: The Generation of Secondary Ice Particles in Clouds by
Crystal–Crystal Collision, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2168–2180,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1978)035<2168:TGOSIP>2.0.CO;2,
1978.
Vidaurre, G. and Hallett, J.: Particle Impact and Breakup in Aircraft
Measurement, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 26, 972–983,
https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JTECHA1147.1, 2009.
Visagie, P. J.: Pressures Inside Freezing Water Drops, J. Glaciol., 8,
301–309, https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000031270, 1969.
Wildeman, S., Sterl, S., Sun, C., and Lohse, D.: Fast Dynamics of Water
Droplets Freezing from the Outside In, Phys. Rev. Lett., 118, 84101,
https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.084101, 2017.
Yano, J.-I. and Phillips, V. T. J.: Ice–Ice Collisions: An Ice
Multiplication Process in Atmospheric Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 68,
322–333, https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAS3607.1, 2011.
Yano, J.-I., Phillips, V. T. J., and Kanawade, V.: Explosive ice
multiplication by mechanical break-up in ice–ice collisions: a dynamical
system-based study, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 142, 867–879,
https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2687, 2016.
Download
The requested paper has a corresponding corrigendum published. Please read the corrigendum first before downloading the article.
- Article
(12268 KB) - Full-text XML
Short summary
Secondary ice production (SIP) plays a key role in the formation of ice particles in tropospheric clouds. This work presents a critical review of the laboratory studies related to secondary ice production. It aims to identify gaps in our knowledge of SIP as well as to stimulate further laboratory studies focused on obtaining a quantitative description of efficiencies for each SIP mechanism.
Secondary ice production (SIP) plays a key role in the formation of ice particles in...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint