Articles | Volume 21, issue 10
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8089-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-8089-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
26 May 2021
Research article |
| 26 May 2021
| 26 May 2021
Uncertainties in eddy covariance air–sea CO2 flux measurements and implications for gas transfer velocity parameterisations
Centre for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth, UK
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth, UK
Dorothee C. E. Bakker
Centre for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Vassilis Kitidis
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth, UK
Thomas G. Bell
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Prospect Place, Plymouth, UK
Related authors
No articles found.
Loren Temple, Stuart Young, Thomas Bannan, Stephanie Batten, Stéphane Bauguitte, Hugh Coe, Eve Grant, Stuart Lacy, James Lee, Emily Matthews, Dominika Pasternak, Samuel Rogers, Andrew Rollins, Jake Vallow, Mingxi Yang, and Pete Edwards
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3678, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3678, 2025
This preprint is open for discussion and under review for Atmospheric Measurement Techniques (AMT).
Short summary
Short summary
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a key precursor to aerosol formation, particularly in remote marine environments, ultimately affecting cloud properties and climate. Accurate quantification of atmospheric SO2 is therefore crucial. This work compares a custom-built laser-based instrument to two commercial SO2 analysers during measurements from a large research aircraft. Our results show that this custom-built system offers greater sensitivity at time resolutions required for aircraft measurements.
Daisy Drew Pickup, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Karen J. Heywood, Francis Glassup, Emily Hammermeister, Sharon E. Stammerjohn, Gareth A. Lee, Socratis Loucaides, Bastien Y. Queste, Benjamin G. M. Webber, and Patricia L. Yager
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2441, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-2441, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Autonomous platforms in the Amundsen Sea have allowed for detection of isolated water masses that are colder, saltier and denser than overlying water. They are also associated with a higher dissolved inorganic carbon concentration and lower pH. The water masses, referred to as lenses, could have implications for the transfer of heat and storage of carbon in the region. We hypothesise that they form in surrounding areas that experience intense cooling and sea ice formation in autumn/winter.
Li-Qing Jiang, Amanda Fay, Jens Daniel Müller, Lydia Keppler, Dustin Carroll, Siv K. Lauvset, Tim DeVries, Judith Hauck, Christian Rödenbeck, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Metzl, Andrea J. Fassbender, Jean-Pierre Gattuso, Peter Landschützer, Rik Wanninkhof, Christopher Sabine, Simone R. Alin, Mario Hoppema, Are Olsen, Matthew P. Humphreys, Kumiko Azetsu-Scott, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Leticia Barbero, Nicholas R. Bates, Nicole Besemer, Henry C. Bittig, Albert E. Boyd, Daniel Broullón, Wei-Jun Cai, Brendan R. Carter, Thi-Tuyet-Trang Chau, Chen-Tung Arthur Chen, Frédéric Cyr, John E. Dore, Ian Enochs, Richard A. Feely, Hernan E. Garcia, Marion Gehlen, Lucas Gloege, Melchor González-Dávila, Nicolas Gruber, Yosuke Iida, Masao Ishii, Esther Kennedy, Alex Kozyr, Nico Lange, Claire Lo Monaco, Derek P. Manzello, Galen A. McKinley, Natalie M. Monacci, Xose A. Padin, Ana M. Palacio-Castro, Fiz F. Pérez, Alizée Roobaert, J. Magdalena Santana-Casiano, Jonathan Sharp, Adrienne Sutton, Jim Swift, Toste Tanhua, Maciej Telszewski, Jens Terhaar, Ruben van Hooidonk, Anton Velo, Andrew J. Watson, Angelicque E. White, Zelun Wu, Hyelim Yoo, and Jiye Zeng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-255, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-255, 2025
Preprint under review for ESSD
Short summary
Short summary
This review article provides an overview of 60 existing ocean carbonate chemistry data products, encompassing a broad range of types, including compilations of cruise datasets, gap-filled observational products, model simulations, and more. It is designed to help researchers identify and access the data products that best support their scientific objectives, thereby facilitating progress in understanding the ocean's changing carbonate chemistry.
Alex T. Archibald, Bablu Sinha, Maria R. Russo, Emily Matthews, Freya A. Squires, N. Luke Abraham, Stephane J.-B. Bauguitte, Thomas J. Bannan, Thomas G. Bell, David Berry, Lucy J. Carpenter, Hugh Coe, Andrew Coward, Peter Edwards, Daniel Feltham, Dwayne Heard, Jim Hopkins, James Keeble, Elizabeth C. Kent, Brian A. King, Isobel R. Lawrence, James Lee, Claire R. Macintosh, Alex Megann, Bengamin I. Moat, Katie Read, Chris Reed, Malcolm J. Roberts, Reinhard Schiemann, David Schroeder, Timothy J. Smyth, Loren Temple, Navaneeth Thamban, Lisa Whalley, Simon Williams, Huihui Wu, and Mingxi Yang
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 135–164, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-135-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-135-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
Here, we present an overview of the data generated as part of the North Atlantic Climate System Integrated Study (ACSIS) programme that are available through dedicated repositories at the Centre for Environmental Data Analysis (CEDA; www.ceda.ac.uk) and the British Oceanographic Data Centre (BODC; bodc.ac.uk). The datasets described here cover the North Atlantic Ocean, the atmosphere above (it including its composition), and Arctic sea ice.
Sankirna D. Joge, Anoop S. Mahajan, Shrivardhan Hulswar, Christa A. Marandino, Martí Galí, Thomas G. Bell, and Rafel Simó
Biogeosciences, 21, 4439–4452, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4439-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4439-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is the largest natural source of sulfur in the atmosphere and leads to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei. DMS emission and quantification of its impacts have large uncertainties, but a detailed study on the emissions and drivers of their uncertainty is missing to date. The emissions are usually calculated from the seawater DMS concentrations and a flux parameterization. Here we quantify the differences in DMS seawater products, which can affect DMS fluxes.
Sankirna D. Joge, Anoop S. Mahajan, Shrivardhan Hulswar, Christa A. Marandino, Martí Galí, Thomas G. Bell, Mingxi Yang, and Rafel Simó
Biogeosciences, 21, 4453–4467, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4453-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-4453-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is the largest natural source of sulfur in the atmosphere and leads to the formation of cloud condensation nuclei. DMS emissions and quantification of their impacts have large uncertainties, but a detailed study on the range of emissions and drivers of their uncertainty is missing to date. The emissions are calculated from the seawater DMS concentrations and a flux parameterization. Here we quantify the differences in the effect of flux parameterizations used in models.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Judith Hauck, Peter Landschützer, Corinne Le Quéré, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Clemens Schwingshackl, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Peter Anthoni, Leticia Barbero, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Bertrand Decharme, Laurent Bopp, Ida Bagus Mandhara Brasika, Patricia Cadule, Matthew A. Chamberlain, Naveen Chandra, Thi-Tuyet-Trang Chau, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Xinyu Dou, Kazutaka Enyo, Wiley Evans, Stefanie Falk, Richard A. Feely, Liang Feng, Daniel J. Ford, Thomas Gasser, Josefine Ghattas, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Matthew Hefner, Jens Heinke, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Andrew R. Jacobson, Atul Jain, Tereza Jarníková, Annika Jersild, Fei Jiang, Zhe Jin, Fortunat Joos, Etsushi Kato, Ralph F. Keeling, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Arne Körtzinger, Xin Lan, Nathalie Lefèvre, Hongmei Li, Junjie Liu, Zhiqiang Liu, Lei Ma, Greg Marland, Nicolas Mayot, Patrick C. McGuire, Galen A. McKinley, Gesa Meyer, Eric J. Morgan, David R. Munro, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin M. O'Brien, Are Olsen, Abdirahman M. Omar, Tsuneo Ono, Melf Paulsen, Denis Pierrot, Katie Pocock, Benjamin Poulter, Carter M. Powis, Gregor Rehder, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, T. Luke Smallman, Stephen M. Smith, Reinel Sospedra-Alfonso, Qing Sun, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Shintaro Takao, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Hiroyuki Tsujino, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Erik van Ooijen, Rik Wanninkhof, Michio Watanabe, Cathy Wimart-Rousseau, Dongxu Yang, Xiaojuan Yang, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, Jiye Zeng, and Bo Zheng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 5301–5369, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-5301-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2023 describes the methodology, main results, and data sets used to quantify the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land ecosystems, and the ocean over the historical period (1750–2023). These living datasets are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
George Manville, Thomas G. Bell, Jane P. Mulcahy, Rafel Simó, Martí Galí, Anoop S. Mahajan, Shrivardhan Hulswar, and Paul R. Halloran
Biogeosciences, 20, 1813–1828, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1813-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-20-1813-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
We present the first global investigation of controls on seawater dimethylsulfide (DMS) spatial variability over scales of up to 100 km. Sea surface height anomalies, density, and chlorophyll a help explain almost 80 % of DMS variability. The results suggest that physical and biogeochemical processes play an equally important role in controlling DMS variability. These data provide independent confirmation that existing parameterisations of seawater DMS concentration use appropriate variables.
Veronica Z. Berta, Lynn M. Russell, Derek J. Price, Chia-Li Chen, Alex K. Y. Lee, Patricia K. Quinn, Timothy S. Bates, Thomas G. Bell, and Michael J. Behrenfeld
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 2765–2787, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2765-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-2765-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Amines are compounds emitted from a variety of marine and continental sources and were measured by aerosol mass spectrometry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy during the North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study (NAAMES) cruises. Secondary continental and primary marine sources of amines were identified by comparisons to tracers. The results show that the two methods are complementary for investigating amines in the marine environment.
Peter Edward Land, Helen S. Findlay, Jamie D. Shutler, Jean-Francois Piolle, Richard Sims, Hannah Green, Vassilis Kitidis, Alexander Polukhin, and Irina I. Pipko
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 15, 921–947, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-921-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-15-921-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Measurements of the ocean’s carbonate system (e.g. CO2 and pH) have increased greatly in recent years, resulting in a need to combine these data with satellite measurements and model results, so they can be used to test predictions of how the ocean reacts to changes such as absorption of the CO2 emitted by humans. We show a method of combining data into regions of interest (100 km circles over a 10 d period) and apply it globally to produce a harmonised and easy-to-use data archive.
Elise S. Droste, Mario Hoppema, Melchor González-Dávila, Juana Magdalena Santana-Casiano, Bastien Y. Queste, Giorgio Dall'Olmo, Hugh J. Venables, Gerd Rohardt, Sharyn Ossebaar, Daniel Schuller, Sunke Trace-Kleeberg, and Dorothee C. E. Bakker
Ocean Sci., 18, 1293–1320, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1293-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1293-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Tides affect the marine carbonate chemistry of a coastal polynya neighbouring the Ekström Ice Shelf by movement of seawater with different physical and biogeochemical properties. The result is that the coastal polynya in the summer can switch between being a sink or a source of CO2 multiple times a day. We encourage consideration of tides when collecting in polar coastal regions to account for tide-driven variability and to avoid overestimations or underestimations of air–sea CO2 exchange.
Daniel J. Ford, Gavin H. Tilstone, Jamie D. Shutler, and Vassilis Kitidis
Biogeosciences, 19, 4287–4304, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4287-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-4287-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study explores the seasonal, inter-annual, and multi-year drivers of the South Atlantic air–sea CO2 flux. Our analysis showed seasonal sea surface temperatures dominate in the subtropics, and the subpolar regions correlated with biological processes. Inter-annually, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation correlated with the CO2 flux by modifying sea surface temperatures and biological activity. Long-term trends indicated an important biological contribution to changes in the air–sea CO2 flux.
Michael P. Hemming, Jan Kaiser, Jacqueline Boutin, Liliane Merlivat, Karen J. Heywood, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Gareth A. Lee, Marcos Cobas García, David Antoine, and Kiminori Shitashima
Ocean Sci., 18, 1245–1262, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1245-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/os-18-1245-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
An underwater glider mission was carried out in spring 2016 near a mooring in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. The glider deployment served as a test of a prototype ion-sensitive field-effect transistor pH sensor. Mean net community production rates were estimated from glider and buoy measurements of dissolved oxygen and inorganic carbon concentrations before and during the spring bloom. Incorporating advection is important for accurate mass budgets. Unexpected metabolic quotients were found.
Shrivardhan Hulswar, Rafel Simó, Martí Galí, Thomas G. Bell, Arancha Lana, Swaleha Inamdar, Paul R. Halloran, George Manville, and Anoop Sharad Mahajan
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 2963–2987, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-2963-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-2963-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The third climatological estimation of sea surface dimethyl sulfide (DMS) concentrations based on in situ measurements was created (DMS-Rev3). The update includes a much larger input dataset and includes improvements in the data unification, filtering, and smoothing algorithm. The DMS-Rev3 climatology provides more realistic monthly estimates of DMS, and shows significant regional differences compared to past climatologies.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Matthew W. Jones, Michael O'Sullivan, Robbie M. Andrew, Dorothee C. E. Bakker, Judith Hauck, Corinne Le Quéré, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Stephen Sitch, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Rob B. Jackson, Simone R. Alin, Peter Anthoni, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Nicolas Bellouin, Laurent Bopp, Thi Tuyet Trang Chau, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Margot Cronin, Kim I. Currie, Bertrand Decharme, Laique M. Djeutchouang, Xinyu Dou, Wiley Evans, Richard A. Feely, Liang Feng, Thomas Gasser, Dennis Gilfillan, Thanos Gkritzalis, Giacomo Grassi, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Özgür Gürses, Ian Harris, Richard A. Houghton, George C. Hurtt, Yosuke Iida, Tatiana Ilyina, Ingrid T. Luijkx, Atul Jain, Steve D. Jones, Etsushi Kato, Daniel Kennedy, Kees Klein Goldewijk, Jürgen Knauer, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Arne Körtzinger, Peter Landschützer, Siv K. Lauvset, Nathalie Lefèvre, Sebastian Lienert, Junjie Liu, Gregg Marland, Patrick C. McGuire, Joe R. Melton, David R. Munro, Julia E. M. S. Nabel, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Tsuneo Ono, Denis Pierrot, Benjamin Poulter, Gregor Rehder, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Thais M. Rosan, Jörg Schwinger, Clemens Schwingshackl, Roland Séférian, Adrienne J. Sutton, Colm Sweeney, Toste Tanhua, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Francesco Tubiello, Guido R. van der Werf, Nicolas Vuichard, Chisato Wada, Rik Wanninkhof, Andrew J. Watson, David Willis, Andrew J. Wiltshire, Wenping Yuan, Chao Yue, Xu Yue, Sönke Zaehle, and Jiye Zeng
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 1917–2005, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1917-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-1917-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2021 describes the data sets and methodology used to quantify the emissions of carbon dioxide and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land, and ocean. These living data are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Richard P. Sims, Michael Bedington, Ute Schuster, Andrew J. Watson, Vassilis Kitidis, Ricardo Torres, Helen S. Findlay, James R. Fishwick, Ian Brown, and Thomas G. Bell
Biogeosciences, 19, 1657–1674, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1657-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1657-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) being absorbed by the ocean is relevant to the earth's climate. CO2 values in the coastal ocean and estuaries are not well known because of the instrumentation used. We used a new approach to measure CO2 across the coastal and estuarine zone. We found that CO2 and salinity were linked to the state of the tide. We used our CO2 measurements and model salinity to predict CO2. Previous studies overestimate how much CO2 the coastal ocean draws down at our site.
Kevin J. Sanchez, Bo Zhang, Hongyu Liu, Matthew D. Brown, Ewan C. Crosbie, Francesca Gallo, Johnathan W. Hair, Chris A. Hostetler, Carolyn E. Jordan, Claire E. Robinson, Amy Jo Scarino, Taylor J. Shingler, Michael A. Shook, Kenneth L. Thornhill, Elizabeth B. Wiggins, Edward L. Winstead, Luke D. Ziemba, Georges Saliba, Savannah L. Lewis, Lynn M. Russell, Patricia K. Quinn, Timothy S. Bates, Jack Porter, Thomas G. Bell, Peter Gaube, Eric S. Saltzman, Michael J. Behrenfeld, and Richard H. Moore
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 2795–2815, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2795-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2795-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Atmospheric particle concentrations impact clouds, which strongly impact the amount of sunlight reflected back into space and the overall climate. Measurements of particles over the ocean are rare and expensive to collect, so models are necessary to fill in the gaps by simulating both particle and clouds. However, some measurements are needed to test the accuracy of the models. Here, we measure changes in particles in different weather conditions, which are ideal for comparison with models.
Charel Wohl, Anna E. Jones, William T. Sturges, Philip D. Nightingale, Brent Else, Brian J. Butterworth, and Mingxi Yang
Biogeosciences, 19, 1021–1045, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1021-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-1021-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
We measured concentrations of five different organic gases in seawater in the high Arctic during summer. We found higher concentrations near the surface of the water column (top 5–10 m) and in areas of partial ice cover. This suggests that sea ice influences the concentrations of these gases. These gases indirectly exert a slight cooling effect on the climate, and it is therefore important to measure the levels accurately for future climate predictions.
Matthew W. Christensen, Andrew Gettelman, Jan Cermak, Guy Dagan, Michael Diamond, Alyson Douglas, Graham Feingold, Franziska Glassmeier, Tom Goren, Daniel P. Grosvenor, Edward Gryspeerdt, Ralph Kahn, Zhanqing Li, Po-Lun Ma, Florent Malavelle, Isabel L. McCoy, Daniel T. McCoy, Greg McFarquhar, Johannes Mülmenstädt, Sandip Pal, Anna Possner, Adam Povey, Johannes Quaas, Daniel Rosenfeld, Anja Schmidt, Roland Schrödner, Armin Sorooshian, Philip Stier, Velle Toll, Duncan Watson-Parris, Robert Wood, Mingxi Yang, and Tianle Yuan
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 641–674, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-641-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-641-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Trace gases and aerosols (tiny airborne particles) are released from a variety of point sources around the globe. Examples include volcanoes, industrial chimneys, forest fires, and ship stacks. These sources provide opportunistic experiments with which to quantify the role of aerosols in modifying cloud properties. We review the current state of understanding on the influence of aerosol on climate built from the wide range of natural and anthropogenic laboratories investigated in recent decades.
Daniel J. Ford, Gavin H. Tilstone, Jamie D. Shutler, and Vassilis Kitidis
Biogeosciences, 19, 93–115, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-93-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-19-93-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
This study identifies the most accurate biological proxy for the estimation of seawater pCO2 fields, which are key to assessing the ocean carbon sink. Our analysis shows that the net community production (NCP), the balance between photosynthesis and respiration, was more accurate than chlorophyll a within a neural network scheme. The improved pCO2 estimates, based on NCP, identified the South Atlantic Ocean as a net CO2 source, compared to a CO2 sink using chlorophyll a.
Daniel P. Phillips, Frances E. Hopkins, Thomas G. Bell, Peter S. Liss, Philip D. Nightingale, Claire E. Reeves, Charel Wohl, and Mingxi Yang
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 10111–10132, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10111-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10111-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We present the first measurements of the rate of transfer (flux) of three gases between the atmosphere and the ocean, using a direct flux measurement technique, at a coastal site. We show greater atmospheric loss of acetone and acetaldehyde into the ocean than estimated by global models for the open water; importantly, the acetaldehyde transfer direction is opposite to the model estimates. Measured dimethylsulfide fluxes agreed with a recent model. Isoprene fluxes were too weak to be measured.
Kevin J. Sanchez, Bo Zhang, Hongyu Liu, Georges Saliba, Chia-Li Chen, Savannah L. Lewis, Lynn M. Russell, Michael A. Shook, Ewan C. Crosbie, Luke D. Ziemba, Matthew D. Brown, Taylor J. Shingler, Claire E. Robinson, Elizabeth B. Wiggins, Kenneth L. Thornhill, Edward L. Winstead, Carolyn Jordan, Patricia K. Quinn, Timothy S. Bates, Jack Porter, Thomas G. Bell, Eric S. Saltzman, Michael J. Behrenfeld, and Richard H. Moore
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 831–851, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-831-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-831-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Models describing atmospheric airflow were combined with satellite measurements representative of marine phytoplankton and other meteorological variables. These combined variables were compared to measured aerosol to identify upwind influences on aerosol concentrations. Results indicate that phytoplankton production rates upwind impact the aerosol mass. Also, results suggest that the condensation of mass onto short-lived large sea spray particles may be a significant sink of aerosol mass.
David C. Loades, Mingxi Yang, Thomas G. Bell, Adam R. Vaughan, Ryan J. Pound, Stefan Metzger, James D. Lee, and Lucy J. Carpenter
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 13, 6915–6931, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-6915-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-13-6915-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The loss of ozone to the sea surface was measured from the south coast of the UK and was found to be more rapid than previous observations over the open ocean. This is likely a consequence of different chemistry and biology in coastal environments. Strong winds appeared to speed up the loss of ozone. A better understanding of what influences ozone loss over the sea will lead to better model estimates of total ozone in the troposphere.
Pierre Friedlingstein, Michael O'Sullivan, Matthew W. Jones, Robbie M. Andrew, Judith Hauck, Are Olsen, Glen P. Peters, Wouter Peters, Julia Pongratz, Stephen Sitch, Corinne Le Quéré, Josep G. Canadell, Philippe Ciais, Robert B. Jackson, Simone Alin, Luiz E. O. C. Aragão, Almut Arneth, Vivek Arora, Nicholas R. Bates, Meike Becker, Alice Benoit-Cattin, Henry C. Bittig, Laurent Bopp, Selma Bultan, Naveen Chandra, Frédéric Chevallier, Louise P. Chini, Wiley Evans, Liesbeth Florentie, Piers M. Forster, Thomas Gasser, Marion Gehlen, Dennis Gilfillan, Thanos Gkritzalis, Luke Gregor, Nicolas Gruber, Ian Harris, Kerstin Hartung, Vanessa Haverd, Richard A. Houghton, Tatiana Ilyina, Atul K. Jain, Emilie Joetzjer, Koji Kadono, Etsushi Kato, Vassilis Kitidis, Jan Ivar Korsbakken, Peter Landschützer, Nathalie Lefèvre, Andrew Lenton, Sebastian Lienert, Zhu Liu, Danica Lombardozzi, Gregg Marland, Nicolas Metzl, David R. Munro, Julia E. M. S. Nabel, Shin-Ichiro Nakaoka, Yosuke Niwa, Kevin O'Brien, Tsuneo Ono, Paul I. Palmer, Denis Pierrot, Benjamin Poulter, Laure Resplandy, Eddy Robertson, Christian Rödenbeck, Jörg Schwinger, Roland Séférian, Ingunn Skjelvan, Adam J. P. Smith, Adrienne J. Sutton, Toste Tanhua, Pieter P. Tans, Hanqin Tian, Bronte Tilbrook, Guido van der Werf, Nicolas Vuichard, Anthony P. Walker, Rik Wanninkhof, Andrew J. Watson, David Willis, Andrew J. Wiltshire, Wenping Yuan, Xu Yue, and Sönke Zaehle
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 3269–3340, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-3269-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
The Global Carbon Budget 2020 describes the data sets and methodology used to quantify the emissions of carbon dioxide and their partitioning among the atmosphere, land, and ocean. These living data are updated every year to provide the highest transparency and traceability in the reporting of CO2, the key driver of climate change.
Wei-Lei Wang, Guisheng Song, François Primeau, Eric S. Saltzman, Thomas G. Bell, and J. Keith Moore
Biogeosciences, 17, 5335–5354, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5335-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-5335-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
Dimethyl sulfide, a volatile compound produced as a byproduct of marine phytoplankton activity, can be emitted to the atmosphere via gas exchange. In the atmosphere, DMS is oxidized to cloud condensation nuclei, thus contributing to cloud formation. Therefore, oceanic DMS plays an important role in regulating the planet's climate by influencing the radiation budget. In this study, we use an artificial neural network model to update the global DMS climatology and estimate the sea-to-air flux.
Cited articles
Bakker, D. C. E., Pfeil, B., Landa, C. S., Metzl, N., O'Brien, K. M., Olsen, A., Smith, K., Cosca, C., Harasawa, S., Jones, S. D., Nakaoka, S., Nojiri, Y., Schuster, U., Steinhoff, T., Sweeney, C., Takahashi, T., Tilbrook, B., Wada, C., Wanninkhof, R., Alin, S. R., Balestrini, C. F., Barbero, L., Bates, N. R., Bianchi, A. A., Bonou, F., Boutin, J., Bozec, Y., Burger, E. F., Cai, W.-J., Castle, R. D., Chen, L., Chierici, M., Currie, K., Evans, W., Featherstone, C., Feely, R. A., Fransson, A., Goyet, C., Greenwood, N., Gregor, L., Hankin, S., Hardman-Mountford, N. J., Harlay, J., Hauck, J., Hoppema, M., Humphreys, M. P., Hunt, C. W., Huss, B., Ibánhez, J. S. P., Johannessen, T., Keeling, R., Kitidis, V., Körtzinger, A., Kozyr, A., Krasakopoulou, E., Kuwata, A., Landschützer, P., Lauvset, S. K., Lefèvre, N., Lo Monaco, C., Manke, A., Mathis, J. T., Merlivat, L., Millero, F. J., Monteiro, P. M. S., Munro, D. R., Murata, A., Newberger, T., Omar, A. M., Ono, T., Paterson, K., Pearce, D., Pierrot, D., Robbins, L. L., Saito, S., Salisbury, J., Schlitzer, R., Schneider, B., Schweitzer, R., Sieger, R., Skjelvan, I., Sullivan, K. F., Sutherland, S. C., Sutton, A. J., Tadokoro, K., Telszewski, M., Tuma, M., van Heuven, S. M. A. C., Vandemark, D., Ward, B., Watson, A. J., and Xu, S.: A multi-decade record of high-quality fCO2 data in version 3 of the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT), Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 8, 383–413, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-8-383-2016, 2016.
Baldocchi, D., Falge, E., Gu, L., Olson, R., Hollinger, D., Running, S., Anthoni, P., Bernhofer, C., Davis, K., and Evans, R.:
FLUXNET: A new tool to study the temporal and spatial variability of ecosystem-scale carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy flux densities,
B. Am. Meteorol. Soc.,
82, 2415–2434, 2001.
Bariteau, L., Helmig, D., Fairall, C. W., Hare, J. E., Hueber, J., and Lang, E. K.: Determination of oceanic ozone deposition by ship-borne eddy covariance flux measurements, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 3, 441–455, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-3-441-2010, 2010.
Bell, T. G., De Bruyn, W., Marandino, C. A., Miller, S. D., Law, C. S., Smith, M. J., and Saltzman, E. S.: Dimethylsulfide gas transfer coefficients from algal blooms in the Southern Ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 1783–1794, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-1783-2015, 2015.
Billesbach, D. P.:
Estimating uncertainties in individual eddy covariance flux measurements: A comparison of methods and a proposed new method,
Agr. Forest Meteorol.,
151, 394–405, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2010.12.001, 2011.
Blomquist, B. W., Huebert, B. J., Fairall, C. W., and Faloona, I. C.: Determining the sea–air flux of dimethylsulfide by eddy correlation using mass spectrometry, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 3, 1–20, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-3-1-2010, 2010.
Blomquist, B.: Interactive comment on “Uncertainties in eddy covariance air-sea CO2 flux measurements and implications for gas transfer velocity parameterisations” by Yuanxu Dong et al., Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.,
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-2021-120-RC1, 2021.
Blomquist, B. W., Fairall, C. W., Huebert, B. J., and Wilson, S. T.: Direct measurement of the oceanic carbon monoxide flux by eddy correlation, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 5, 3069–3075, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-3069-2012, 2012.
Blomquist, B. W., Huebert, B. J., Fairall, C. W., Bariteau, L., Edson, J. B., Hare, J. E., and McGillis, W. R.:
Advances in Air-Sea CO2 Flux Measurement by Eddy Correlation,
Bound.-Lay. Meteorol.,
152, 245–276, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10546-014-9926-2, 2014.
Blomquist, B. W., Brumer, S. E., Fairall, C. W., Huebert, B. J., Zappa, C. J., Brooks, I. M., Yang, M., Bariteau, L., Prytherch, J., Hare, J. E., Czerski, H., Matei, A., and Pascal, R. W.:
Wind Speed and Sea State Dependencies of Air-Sea Gas Transfer: Results From the High Wind Speed Gas Exchange Study (HiWinGS),
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
122, 8034–8062, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JC013181, 2017.
Broecker, W. S. and Peng, T. H.:
Greenhouse Puzzles Part 1 Keeling's World: is CO2 Greening the Earth, k1–k112,
Columbia University, Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, 1998.
Broecker, W. S., Ledwell, J. R., Takahashi, T., Weiss, R., Merlivat, L., Memery, L., Peng, T., Jahne, B., and Munnich, K. O.:
Isotopic versus micrometeorologic ocean CO2 fluxes: A serious conflict,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
91, 10517–10527, 1986.
Businger, J.:
Evaluation of the accuracy with which dry deposition can be measured with current micrometeorological techniques,
J. Clim. Appl. Meteorol.,
25, 1100–1124, 1986.
Butterworth, B. J. and Miller, S. D.:
Air–sea exchange of carbon dioxide in the Southern Ocean and Antarctic marginal ice zone,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
43, 7223–7230, https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL069581, 2016.
Edson, J. B., Hinton, A. A., Prada, K. E., Hare, J. E., and Fairall, C. W.:
Direct covariance flux estimates from mobile platforms at sea,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
15, 547–562, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0547:DCFEFM>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Edson, J. B., Fairall, C. W., Bariteau, L., Zappa, C. J., Cifuentes-Lorenzen, A., McGillis, W. R., Pezoa, S., Hare, J. E., and Helmig, D.:
Direct covariance measurement of CO2 gas transfer velocity during the 2008 Southern Ocean Gas Exchange Experiment: Wind speed dependency,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
116, C00F10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JC007022, 2011.
Edson, J. B., Jampana, V., Weller, R. A., Bigorre, S. P., Plueddemann, A. J., Fairall, C. W., Miller, S. D., Mahrt, L., Vickers, D., and Hersbach, H.:
On the exchange of momentum over the open ocean,
J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
43, 1589–1610, 2013.
Else, B. G. T., Papakyriakou, T. N., Galley, R. J., Drennan, W. M., Miller, L. A., and Thomas, H.:
Wintertime CO2 fluxes in an Arctic polynya using eddy covariance: Evidence for enhanced air–sea gas transfer during ice formation,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
116, C00G03, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006760, 2011.
Fairall, C. W., Hare, J. E., Edson, J. B., and McGillis, W.:
Parameterization and micrometeorological measurement of air–sea gas transfer,
Bound.-Lay. Meteorol.,
96, 63–105, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1002662826020, 2000.
Finkelstein, P. L. and Sims, P. F.:
Sampling error in eddy correlation flux measurements,
J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos.,
106, 3503–3509, 2001.
Flügge, M., Paskyabi, M. B., Reuder, J., Edson, J. B., and Plueddemann, A. J.:
Comparison of direct covariance flux measurements from an offshore tower and a buoy,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
33, 873–890, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-15-0109.1, 2016.
Garbe, C. S., Rutgersson, A., Boutin, J., De Leeuw, G., Delille, B., Fairall, C. W., Gruber, N., Hare, J., Ho, D. T., and Johnson, M. T.:
Transfer across the air–sea interface,
in: Ocean-atmosphere interactions of gases and particles,
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 55–112, 2014.
Ho, D. T., Law, C. S., Smith, M. J., Schlosser, P., Harvey, M., and Hill, P.:
Measurements of air–sea gas exchange at high wind speeds in the Southern Ocean: Implications for global parameterizations,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
33, L16611, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026817, 2006.
Ikawa, H., Faloona, I., Kochendorfer, J., Paw U, K. T., and Oechel, W. C.: Air–sea exchange of CO2 at a Northern California coastal site along the California Current upwelling system, Biogeosciences, 10, 4419–4432, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-4419-2013, 2013.
JCGM, J.:
Evaluation of measurement data—Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement,
Int. Organ. Stand., Geneva,
50, 134, 2008.
Jones, E. P. and Smith, S. D.:
A first measurement of sea–air CO2 flux by eddy correlation,
J. Geophys. Res.,
82, 5990–5992, 1977.
Kaimal, J. C. and Finnigan, J. J.:
Atmospheric boundary layer flows: their structure and measurement,
Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
Kaimal, J. C., Wyngaard, J. C., Izumi, Y., and Cote, O. R.:
Spectral characteristics of surface-layer turbulence,
Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc.,
098, 563–589, https://doi.org/10.1256/smsqj.41706, 1972.
Kohsiek, W.:
Water vapor cross-sensitivity of open path H2O/CO2 sensors,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
17, 299–311, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<0299:WVCSOO>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Kondo, F. and Tsukamoto, O.:
Air–sea CO2 flux by eddy covariance technique in the equatorial Indian Ocean,
J. Oceanogr.,
63, 449–456, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10872-007-0040-7, 2007.
Landschützer, P., Gruber, N., and Bakker, D. C. E.:
An observation-based global monthly gridded sea surface pCO2 product from 1982 onward and its monthly climatology (NCEI Accession 0160558), Version 5.5, Dataset,
NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, https://doi.org/10.7289/V5Z899N6, 2020.
Landwehr, S., Miller, S. D., Smith, M. J., Saltzman, E. S., and Ward, B.: Analysis of the PKT correction for direct CO2 flux measurements over the ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 3361–3372, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-3361-2014, 2014.
Landwehr, S., Miller, S. D., Smith, M. J., Bell, T. G., Saltzman, E. S., and Ward, B.: Using eddy covariance to measure the dependence of air–sea CO2 exchange rate on friction velocity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 4297–4315, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-4297-2018, 2018.
Langford, B., Acton, W., Ammann, C., Valach, A., and Nemitz, E.: Eddy-covariance data with low signal-to-noise ratio: time-lag determination, uncertainties and limit of detection, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 4197–4213, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-4197-2015, 2015.
Lauvset, S. K., McGillis, W. R., Bariteau, L., Fairall, C. W., Johannessen, T., Olsen, A., and Zappa, C. J.:
Direct measurements of CO2 flux in the Greenland Sea,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
38, L12603, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047722, 2011.
Lenschow, D. H. and Kristensen, L.:
Uncorrelated noise in turbulence measurements,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
2, 68–81, 1985.
Lenschow, D. H., Mann, J., and Kristensen, L.:
How long is long enough when measuring fluxes and other turbulence statistics?, NCAR Tech. Note, NCAR/TN-389, 53,
Natl. Cent. for Atmos. Res., Boulder, Colo., 1993.
Lenschow, D. H., Mann, J., and Kristensen, L.:
How long is long enough when measuring fluxes and other turbulence statistics?,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
11, 661–673, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1994)011<0661:HLILEW>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
Lenschow, D. H., Wulfmeyer, V., and Senff, C.:
Measuring second- through fourth-order moments in noisy data,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
17, 1330–1347, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<1330:MSTFOM>2.0.CO;2, 2000.
Loescher, H. W., Law, B. E., Mahrt, L., Hollinger, D. Y., Campbell, J., and Wofsy, S. C.:
Uncertainties in, and interpretation of, carbon flux estimates using the eddy covariance technique,
J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos.,
111, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006932, 2006.
Mahrt, L.:
Flux sampling errors for aircraft and towers,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
15, 416–429, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1998)015<0416:FSEFAA>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Mauder, M., Cuntz, M., Drüe, C., Graf, A., Rebmann, C., Schmid, H. P., Schmidt, M., and Steinbrecher, R.:
A strategy for quality and uncertainty assessment of long-term eddy-covariance measurements,
Agr. Forest Meteorol.,
169, 122–135, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.09.006, 2013.
McGillis, W. R., Edson, J. B., Ware, J. D., Dacey, J. W. H., Hare, J. E., Fairall, C. W., and Wanninkhof, R.:
Carbon dioxide flux techniques performed during GasEx-98,
Mar. Chem.,
75, 267–280, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4203(01)00042-1, 2001.
McGillis, W. R., Edson, J. B., Zappa, C. J., Ware, J. D., McKenna, S. P., Terray, E. A., Hare, J. E., Fairall, C. W., Drennan, W., and Donelan, M.:
Air–sea CO2 exchange in the equatorial Pacific,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
109, C08S02, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003JC002256, 2004.
Miller, S. D., Marandino, C., and Saltzman, E. S.:
Ship-based measurement of air–sea CO2 exchange by eddy covariance,
J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos.,
115, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012193, 2010.
Moat, B. and Yelland, M.:
Airflow distortion at instrument sites on the RRS James Clark Ross during the WAGES project, No. 12, National Oceanography Centre Internal Document,
National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, 2015.
Moat, B. I., Yelland, M. J., and Cooper, E. B.:
The airflow distortion at instruments sites on the RRS “James Cook”, National Oceanography Centre Southampton Research and Consultancy Report 11,
National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, 44 pp, 2006.
Nightingale, P. D., Malin, G., Law, C. S., Watson, A. J., Liss, P. S., Liddicoat, M. I., Boutin, J., and Upstill-Goddard, R. C.:
In situ evaluation of air–sea gas exchange parameterizations using novel conservative and volatile tracers,
Global Biogeochem. Cy.,
14, 373–387, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GB900091, 2000.
Nilsson, E., Bergström, H., Rutgersson, A., Podgrajsek, E., Wallin, M. B., Bergström, G., Dellwik, E., Landwehr, S., and Ward, B.:
Evaluating humidity and sea salt disturbances on CO2 flux measurements,
J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech.,
35, 859–875, https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-17-0072.1, 2018.
Post, H., Hendricks Franssen, H. J., Graf, A., Schmidt, M., and Vereecken, H.: Uncertainty analysis of eddy covariance CO2 flux measurements for different EC tower distances using an extended two-tower approach, Biogeosciences, 12, 1205–1221, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-1205-2015, 2015.
Prytherch, J., Yelland, M. J., Pascal, R. W., Moat, B. I., Skjelvan, I., and Neill, C. C.:
Direct measurements of the CO2 flux over the ocean: Development of a novel method,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
37, L03607, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL041482, 2010.
Prytherch, J., Brooks, I. M., Crill, P. M., Thornton, B. F., Salisbury, D. J., Tjernström, M., Anderson, L. G., Geibel, M. C., and Humborg, C.:
Direct determination of the air–sea CO2 gas transfer velocity in Arctic sea ice regions,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
44, 3770–3778, 2017.
Rannik, Ü., Mammarella, I., Aalto, P., Keronen, P., Vesala, T., and Kulmala, M.:
Long-term aerosol particle flux observations part I: Uncertainties and time-average statistics,
Atmos. Environ.,
43, 3431–3439, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.02.049, 2009.
Rannik, Ü., Peltola, O., and Mammarella, I.: Random uncertainties of flux measurements by the eddy covariance technique, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 5163–5181, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-5163-2016, 2016.
Smith, S. D. and Jones, E. P.:
Evidence for wind-pumping of air–sea gas exchange based on direct measurements of CO2 fluxes,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
90, 869–875, 1985.
Spreen, G., Kaleschke, L., and Heygster, G.:
Sea ice remote sensing using AMSR-E 89-GHz channels,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
113, C02S03, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005JC003384, 2008.
Takahashi, T., Sutherland, S. C., Wanninkhof, R., Sweeney, C., Feely, R. A., Chipman, D. W., Hales, B., Friederich, G., Chavez, F., Sabine, C., Watson, A., Bakker, D. C. E., Schuster, U., Yoshikawa-Inoue, H., Ishii, M., Midorikawa, T., Nojiri, Y., Körtzinger, A., Steinhoff, T., Hoppema, M., Olafsson, J., Arnarson, T. S., Johannessen, T., Olsen, A., Bellerby, R., Wong, C. S., Delille, B., Bates, N. R., and de Baar, H. J. W.:
Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea–air CO2 flux over the global oceans,
Deep Sea Res. Pt. II,
56, 554–577, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DSR2.2008.12.009, 2009.
Tsukamoto, O., Kondo, F., and Kamei, Y.:
Overestimation of downward air–sea eddy CO2 flux due to optical window contamination of open-path gas analyzer,
SOLA,
10, 117–121, 2014.
Wanninkhof, R.:
Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean revisited,
Limnol. Oceanogr.-Meth.,
12, 351–362, https://doi.org/10.4319/lom.2014.12.351, 2014.
Wanninkhof, R., Asher, W. E., Ho, D. T., Sweeney, C., and McGillis, W. R.: Advances in Quantifying Air-Sea Gas Exchange and Environmental Forcing, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 1, 213–244, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163742, 2009.
Weiss, R. F.: Carbon dioxide in water and seawater: the solubility of a non-ideal gas, Mar. Chem., 2, 203–215, https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4203(74)90015-2, 1974.
Weiss, A., Kuss, J., Peters, G., and Schneider, B.:
Evaluating transfer velocity-wind speed relationship using a long-term series of direct eddy correlation CO2 flux measurements,
J. Marine Syst.,
66, 130–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2006.04.011, 2007.
Wesely, M. L., Cook, D. R., Hart, R. L., and Williams, R. M.:
Air–sea exchange of CO2 and evidence for enhanced upward fluxes,
J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans,
87, 8827–8832, 1982.
Wienhold, F. G., Welling, M., and Harris, G. W.:
Micrometeorological measurement and source region analysis of nitrous oxide fluxes from an agricultural soil,
Atmos. Environ.,
29, 2219–2227, 1995.
Woolf, D. K., Shutler, J. D., Goddijn-Murphy, L., Watson, A. J., Chapron, B., Nightingale, P. D., Donlon, C. J., Piskozub, J., Yelland, M. J., Ashton, I., Holding, T., Schuster, U., Girard-Ardhuin, F., Grouazel, A., Piolle, J. F., Warren, M., Wrobel-Niedzwiecka, I., Land, P. E., Torres, R., Prytherch, J., Moat, B., Hanafin, J., Ardhuin, F., and Paul, F.:
Key uncertainties in the recent air–sea flux of CO2,
Global Biogeochem. Cy.,
33, 1548–1563, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GB006041, 2019.
Wyngaard, J. C.:
Getting to know turbulence, Part I, Chapt. 2,
in: Turbulence in the Atmosphere,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 27–54 2010.
Yang, M., Nightingale, P. D., Beale, R., Liss, P. S., Blomquist, B., and Fairall, C.:
Atmospheric deposition of methanol over the Atlantic Ocean,
P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,
110, 20034–20039, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317840110, 2013.
Yang, M., Prytherch, J., Kozlova, E., Yelland, M. J., Parenkat Mony, D., and Bell, T. G.: Comparison of two closed-path cavity-based spectrometers for measuring air–water CO2 and CH4 fluxes by eddy covariance, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 9, 5509–5522, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-9-5509-2016, 2016.
Yelland, M. J., Moat, B. I., Taylor, P. K., Pascal, R. W., Hutchings, J., and Cornell, V. C.:
Wind stress measurements from the open ocean corrected for airflow distortion by the ship,
J. Phys. Oceanogr.,
28, 1511–1526, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028<1511:WSMFTO>2.0.CO;2, 1998.
Short summary
Eddy covariance (EC) is the most direct method for measuring air–sea CO2 flux from ships. However, uncertainty in EC air–sea CO2 fluxes has not been well quantified. Here we show that with the state-of-the-art gas analysers, instrumental noise no longer contributes significantly to the CO2 flux uncertainty. Applying an appropriate averaging timescale (1–3 h) and suitable air–sea CO2 fugacity threshold (at least 20 µatm) to EC flux data enables an optimal analysis of the gas transfer velocity.
Eddy covariance (EC) is the most direct method for measuring air–sea CO2 flux from ships....
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint