Articles | Volume 25, issue 14
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-8185-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-25-8185-2025
© Author(s) 2025. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Advances in characterization of black carbon particles and their associated coatings using the soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer in Singapore, a complex city environment
Mutian Ma
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
now at: Cambridge Centre of Advance Research and Education in Singapore, Singapore
Laura-Hélèna Rivellini
NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Yichen Zong
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Cambridge Centre of Advance Research and Education in Singapore, Singapore
Markus Kraft
Cambridge Centre of Advance Research and Education in Singapore, Singapore
Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
Liya E. Yu
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore
NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Alex King Yin Lee
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, ON, Toronto, Canada
Related authors
Mutian Ma, Laura-Hélèna Rivellini, YuXi Cui, Megan D. Willis, Rio Wilkie, Jonathan P. D. Abbatt, Manjula R. Canagaratna, Junfeng Wang, Xinlei Ge, and Alex K. Y. Lee
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 2799–2812, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2799-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2799-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Chemical characterization of organic coatings is important to advance our understanding of the physio-chemical properties and atmospheric processing of black carbon (BC) particles. This work develops two approaches to improve the elemental analysis of oxygenated organic coatings using a soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer. Analyzing ambient data with the new approaches indicated that secondary organics that coated on BC were likely less oxygenated compared to those externally mixed with BC.
Ryan N. Farley, James E. Lee, Laura-Hélèna Rivellini, Alex K. Y. Lee, Rachael Dal Porto, Christopher D. Cappa, Kyle Gorkowski, Abu Sayeed Md Shawon, Katherine B. Benedict, Allison C. Aiken, Manvendra K. Dubey, and Qi Zhang
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 3953–3971, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-3953-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-3953-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
The black carbon aerosol composition and mixing state were characterized using a soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer. Single-particle measurements revealed the major role of atmospheric processing in modulating the black carbon mixing state. A significant fraction of soot particles were internally mixed with oxidized organic aerosol and sulfate, with implications for activation as cloud nuclei.
Kang Pan, Mei Qi Lim, Markus Kraft, and Epaminondas Mastorakos
Geosci. Model Dev., 14, 4509–4534, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-4509-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-4509-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
A new moving point source (MPS) model was developed to simulate the dispersion of emissions generated by the moving ships. Compared to the commonly used line source (LS) or fixed point source (FPS) model, the MPS model provides more emission distribution details generated by the moving ships and matches reasonably with the measurements. Therefore, the MPS model should be a valuable alternative for the environmental society to evaluate the pollutant dispersion contributed from the moving ships.
Mutian Ma, Laura-Hélèna Rivellini, YuXi Cui, Megan D. Willis, Rio Wilkie, Jonathan P. D. Abbatt, Manjula R. Canagaratna, Junfeng Wang, Xinlei Ge, and Alex K. Y. Lee
Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 2799–2812, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2799-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2799-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Chemical characterization of organic coatings is important to advance our understanding of the physio-chemical properties and atmospheric processing of black carbon (BC) particles. This work develops two approaches to improve the elemental analysis of oxygenated organic coatings using a soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer. Analyzing ambient data with the new approaches indicated that secondary organics that coated on BC were likely less oxygenated compared to those externally mixed with BC.
Cited articles
Adam, M. G., Tran, P. T. M., Bolan, N., and Balasubramanian, R.: Biomass burning-derived airborne particulate matter in Southeast Asia: A critical review, J. Hazard. Mater., 407, 124760, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124760, 2021.
Allan, J. D., Delia, A. E., Coe, H., Bower, K. N., Alfarra, M. R., Jimenez, J. L., Middlebrook, A. M., Drewnick, F., Onasch, T. B., Canagaratna, M. R., Jayne, J. T., and Worsnop, D. R.: A generalised method for the extraction of chemically resolved mass spectra from Aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer data, J. Aerosol Sci., 35, 909–922, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaerosci.2004.02.007, 2004.
Baker, J.: A cluster analysis of long range air transport pathways and associated pollutant concentrations within the UK, Atmos. Environ., 44, 563–571, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.10.030, 2010.
Betha, R., Pradani, M., Lestari, P., Joshi, U. M., Reid, J. S., and Balasubramanian, R.: Chemical speciation of trace metals emitted from Indonesian peat fires for health risk assessment, Atmos. Res., 122, 571–578, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.05.024, 2013.
Bibi, Z., Coe, H., Brooks, J., Williams, P. I., Reyes-Villegas, E., Priestley, M., Percival, C. J., and Allan, J. D.: Technical note: A new approach to discriminate different black carbon sources by utilising fullerene and metals in positive matrix factorisation analysis of high-resolution soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 10763–10777, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10763-2021, 2021.
Bond, T. C., Doherty, S. J., Fahey, D. W., Forster, P. M., Berntsen, T., DeAngelo, B. J., Flanner, M. G., Ghan, S., Kärcher, B., Koch, D., Kinne, S., Kondo, Y., Quinn, P. K., Sarofim, M. C., Schultz, M. G., Schulz, M., Venkataraman, C., Zhang, H., Zhang, S., Bellouin, N., Guttikunda, S. K., Hopke, P. K., Jacobson, M. Z., Kaiser, J. W., Klimont, Z., Lohmann, U., Schwarz, J. P., Shindell, D., Storelvmo, T., Warren, S. G., and Zender, C. S.: Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 5380–5552, https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50171, 2013.
Borge, R., Lumbreras, J., Vardoulakis, S., Kassomenos, P., and Rodríguez, E.: Analysis of long-range transport influences on urban PM10 using two-stage atmospheric trajectory clusters, Atmos. Environ., 41, 4434–4450, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.01.053, 2007.
Budisulistiorini, S. H., Riva, M., Williams, M., Miyakawa, T., Chen, J., Itoh, M., Surratt, J. D., and Kuwata, M.: Dominant contribution of oxygenated organic aerosol to haze particles from real-time observation in Singapore during an Indonesian wildfire event in 2015, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 16481–16498, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-16481-2018, 2018.
Canagaratna, M. R., Jayne, J. T., Jimenez, J. L., Allan, J. D., Alfarra, M. R., Zhang, Q., Onasch, T. B., Drewnick, F., Coe, H., Middlebrook, A., Delia, A., Williams, L. R., Trimborn, A. M., Northway, M. J., DeCarlo, P. F., Kolb, C. E., Davidovits, P., and Worsnop, D. R.: Chemical and microphysical characterization of ambient aerosols with the aerodyne aerosol mass spectrometer, Mass Spectrom. Rev., 26, 185–222, https://doi.org/10.1002/mas.20115, 2007.
Canagaratna, M. R., Jimenez, J. L., Kroll, J. H., Chen, Q., Kessler, S. H., Massoli, P., Hildebrandt Ruiz, L., Fortner, E., Williams, L. R., Wilson, K. R., Surratt, J. D., Donahue, N. M., Jayne, J. T., and Worsnop, D. R.: Elemental ratio measurements of organic compounds using aerosol mass spectrometry: characterization, improved calibration, and implications, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 253–272, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-253-2015, 2015.
Cao, L.-M., Wei, J., He, L.-Y., Zeng, H., Li, M.-L., Zhu, Q., Yu, G.-H., and Huang, X.-F.: Aqueous aging of secondary organic aerosol coating onto black carbon: Insights from simultaneous L-ToF-AMS and SP-AMS measurements at an urban site in southern China, J. Cleaner Prod., 330, 129888, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129888, 2022.
Cappa, C. D., Onasch, T. B., Massoli, P., Worsnop, D. R., Bates, T. S., Cross, E. S., Davidovits, P., Hakala, J., Hayden, K. L., Jobson, B. T., Kolesar, K. R., Lack, D. A., Lerner, B. M., Li, S. M., Mellon, D., Nuaaman, I., Olfert, J. S., Petaja, T., Quinn, P. K., Song, C., Subramanian, R., Williams, E. J., and Zaveri, R. A.: Radiative absorption enhancements due to the mixing state of atmospheric black carbon, Science, 337, 1078–1081, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1223447, 2012.
Cappa, C. D., Zhang, X., Russell, L. M., Collier, S., Lee, A. K. Y., Chen, C.-L., Betha, R., Chen, S., Liu, J., Price, D. J., Sanchez, K. J., McMeeking, G. R., Williams, L. R., Onasch, T. B., Worsnop, D. R., Abbatt, J., and Zhang, Q.: Light Absorption by Ambient Black and Brown Carbon and its Dependence on Black Carbon Coating State for Two California, USA, Cities in Winter and Summer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 124, 1550–1577, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018jd029501, 2019.
Carbone, S., Onasch, T., Saarikoski, S., Timonen, H., Saarnio, K., Sueper, D., Rönkkö, T., Pirjola, L., Häyrinen, A., Worsnop, D., and Hillamo, R.: Characterization of trace metals on soot aerosol particles with the SP-AMS: detection and quantification, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 4803–4815, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-4803-2015, 2015.
Carbone, S., Timonen, H. J., Rostedt, A., Happonen, M., Rönkkö, T., Keskinen, J., Ristimaki, J., Korpi, H., Artaxo, P., Canagaratna, M., Worsnop, D., Canonaco, F., Prévôt, A. S. H., Hillamo, R., and Saarikoski, S.: Distinguishing fuel and lubricating oil combustion products in diesel engine exhaust particles, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 53, 594–607, https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2019.1584389, 2019.
Chen, G., Canonaco, F., Tobler, A., Aas, W., Alastuey, A., Allan, J., Atabakhsh, S., Aurela, M., Baltensperger, U., Bougiatioti, A., De Brito, J. F., Ceburnis, D., Chazeau, B., Chebaicheb, H., Daellenbach, K. R., Ehn, M., El Haddad, I., Eleftheriadis, K., Favez, O., Flentje, H., Font, A., Fossum, K., Freney, E., Gini, M., Green, D. C., Heikkinen, L., Herrmann, H., Kalogridis, A.-C., Keernik, H., Lhotka, R., Lin, C., Lunder, C., Maasikmets, M., Manousakas, M. I., Marchand, N., Marin, C., Marmureanu, L., Mihalopoulos, N., Moènik, G., Nêcki, J., O'Dowd, C., Ovadnevaite, J., Peter, T., Petit, J.-E., Pikridas, M., Matthew Platt, S., Pokorná, P., Poulain, L., Priestman, M., Riffault, V., Rinaldi, M., Różański, K., Schwarz, J., Sciare, J., Simon, L., Skiba, A., Slowik, J. G., Sosedova, Y., Stavroulas, I., Styszko, K., Teinemaa, E., Timonen, H., Tremper, A., Vasilescu, J., Via, M., Vodièka, P., Wiedensohler, A., Zografou, O., Cruz Minguillón, M., and Prévôt, A. S. H.: European aerosol phenomenology – 8: Harmonised source apportionment of organic aerosol using 22 Year-long ACSM/AMS datasets, Environ. Int., 166, 107325, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107325, 2022.
China, S., Mazzoleni, C., Gorkowski, K., Aiken, A. C., and Dubey, M. K.: Morphology and mixing state of individual freshly emitted wildfire carbonaceous particles, Nat. Commun., 4, 2122, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms3122, 2013.
Collier, S., Williams, L. R., Onasch, T. B., Cappa, C. D., Zhang, X., Russell, L. M., Chen, C.-L., Sanchez, K. J., Worsnop, D. R., and Zhang, Q.: Influence of Emissions and Aqueous Processing on Particles Containing Black Carbon in a Polluted Urban Environment: Insights From a Soot Particle-Aerosol Mass Spectrometer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 123, 6648–6666, https://doi.org/10.1002/2017jd027851, 2018.
Corbin, J. C., Sierau, B., Gysel, M., Laborde, M., Keller, A., Kim, J., Petzold, A., Onasch, T. B., Lohmann, U., and Mensah, A. A.: Mass spectrometry of refractory black carbon particles from six sources: carbon-cluster and oxygenated ions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 2591–2603, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-2591-2014, 2014.
Corbin, J. C., Mensah, A. A., Pieber, S. M., Orasche, J., Michalke, B., Zanatta, M., Czech, H., Massabo, D., Buatier de Mongeot, F., Mennucci, C., El Haddad, I., Kumar, N. K., Stengel, B., Huang, Y., Zimmermann, R., Prevot, A. S. H., and Gysel, M.: Trace Metals in Soot and PM2.5 from Heavy-Fuel-Oil Combustion in a Marine Engine, Environ. Sci. Technol., 52, 6714–6722, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01764, 2018.
Cubison, M. J., Ortega, A. M., Hayes, P. L., Farmer, D. K., Day, D., Lechner, M. J., Brune, W. H., Apel, E., Diskin, G. S., Fisher, J. A., Fuelberg, H. E., Hecobian, A., Knapp, D. J., Mikoviny, T., Riemer, D., Sachse, G. W., Sessions, W., Weber, R. J., Weinheimer, A. J., Wisthaler, A., and Jimenez, J. L.: Effects of aging on organic aerosol from open biomass burning smoke in aircraft and laboratory studies, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12049–12064, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-12049-2011, 2011.
Cui, S., Huang, D. D., Wu, Y., Wang, J., Shen, F., Xian, J., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Huang, C., Liao, H., and Ge, X.: Chemical properties, sources and size-resolved hygroscopicity of submicron black-carbon-containing aerosols in urban Shanghai, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 22, 8073–8096, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-8073-2022, 2022.
Daellenbach, K. R., Cai, J., Hakala, S., Dada, L., Yan, C., Du, W., Yao, L., Zheng, F., Ma, J., Ungeheuer, F., Vogel, A. L., Stolzenburg, D., Hao, Y., Liu, Y., Bianchi, F., Uzu, G., Jaffrezo, J.-L., Worsnop, D. R., Donahue, N. M., and Kulmala, M.: Substantial contribution of transported emissions to organic aerosol in Beijing, Nat. Geosci., 17, 747–754, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01493-3, 2024.
Dallmann, T. R., Onasch, T. B., Kirchstetter, T. W., Worton, D. R., Fortner, E. C., Herndon, S. C., Wood, E. C., Franklin, J. P., Worsnop, D. R., Goldstein, A. H., and Harley, R. A.: Characterization of particulate matter emissions from on-road gasoline and diesel vehicles using a soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 7585–7599, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-7585-2014, 2014.
Day, D. A., Campuzano-Jost, P., Nault, B. A., Palm, B. B., Hu, W., Guo, H., Wooldridge, P. J., Cohen, R. C., Docherty, K. S., Huffman, J. A., de Sá, S. S., Martin, S. T., and Jimenez, J. L.: A systematic re-evaluation of methods for quantification of bulk particle-phase organic nitrates using real-time aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 15, 459–483, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-15-459-2022, 2022.
DeCarlo, P. F., Kimmel, J. R., Trimborn, A., Northway, M. J., Jayne, J. T., Aiken, A. C., Gonin, M., Fuhrer, K., Horvath, T., Docherty, K. S., Worsnop, D. R., and Jimenez, J. L.: Field-deployable, high-resolution, time-of-flight aerosol mass spectrometer, Anal. Chem., 78, 8281–8289, https://doi.org/10.1021/ac061249n, 2006.
Draxler, R. R. and Hess, G. D.: . An overview of the HYSPLIT_4 modelling system for trajectories, dispersion and deposition. Aust. Meteor. Mag., 47, 295–308, 1998.
Drinovec, L., Močnik, G., Zotter, P., Prévôt, A. S. H., Ruckstuhl, C., Coz, E., Rupakheti, M., Sciare, J., Müller, T., Wiedensohler, A., and Hansen, A. D. A.: The “dual-spot” Aethalometer: an improved measurement of aerosol black carbon with real-time loading compensation, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 8, 1965–1979, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-1965-2015, 2015.
Farley, R. N., Collier, S., Cappa, C. D., Williams, L. R., Onasch, T. B., Russell, L. M., Kim, H., and Zhang, Q.: Source apportionment of soot particles and aqueous-phase processing of black carbon coatings in an urban environment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 15039–15056, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-15039-2023, 2023.
Farley, R. N., Lee, J. E., Rivellini, L.-H., Lee, A. K. Y., Dal Porto, R., Cappa, C. D., Gorkowski, K., Shawon, A. S. M., Benedict, K. B., Aiken, A. C., Dubey, M. K., and Zhang, Q.: Chemical properties and single-particle mixing state of soot aerosol in Houston during the TRACER campaign, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 3953–3971, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-3953-2024, 2024.
Farmer, D. K., Matsunaga, A., Docherty, K. S., Surratt, J. D., Seinfeld, J. H., Ziemann, P. J., and Jimenez, J. L.: Response of an aerosol mass spectrometer to organonitrates and organosulfates and implications for atmospheric chemistry, P Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 6670–6675, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0912340107, 2010.
Fierce, L., Bond, T. C., Bauer, S. E., Mena, F., and Riemer, N.: Black carbon absorption at the global scale is affected by particle-scale diversity in composition, Nat. Commun., 7, 12361, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12361, 2016.
Fierce, L., Onasch, T. B., Cappa, C. D., Mazzoleni, C., China, S., Bhandari, J., Davidovits, P., Fischer, D. A., Helgestad, T., Lambe, A. T., Sedlacek, A. J., Smith, G. D., and Wolff, L.: Radiative absorption enhancements by black carbon controlled by particle-to-particle heterogeneity in composition, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 117, 5196–5203, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1919723117, 2020.
Fröhlich, R., Cubison, M. J., Slowik, J. G., Bukowiecki, N., Prévôt, A. S. H., Baltensperger, U., Schneider, J., Kimmel, J. R., Gonin, M., Rohner, U., Worsnop, D. R., and Jayne, J. T.: The ToF-ACSM: a portable aerosol chemical speciation monitor with TOFMS detection, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 6, 3225–3241, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-6-3225-2013, 2013.
Fry, J. L., Brown, S. S., Middlebrook, A. M., Edwards, P. M., Campuzano-Jost, P., Day, D. A., Jimenez, J. L., Allen, H. M., Ryerson, T. B., Pollack, I., Graus, M., Warneke, C., de Gouw, J. A., Brock, C. A., Gilman, J., Lerner, B. M., Dubé, W. P., Liao, J., and Welti, A.: Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) yields from NO3 radical + isoprene based on nighttime aircraft power plant plume transects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 11663–11682, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-11663-2018, 2018.
Fwa, T. F., Ang, B. W., and Goh, T. N.: Characteristics of truck traffic in Singapore, J. Adv. Transport., 30, 25–46, https://doi.org/10.1002/atr.5670300204, 1996.
Ge, X., Setyan, A., Sun, Y., and Zhang, Q.: Primary and secondary organic aerosols in Fresno, California during wintertime: Results from high resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 117, D19301, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012jd018026, 2012.
Gentner, D. R., Jathar, S. H., Gordon, T. D., Bahreini, R., Day, D. A., El Haddad, I., Hayes, P. L., Pieber, S. M., Platt, S. M., de Gouw, J., Goldstein, A. H., Harley, R. A., Jimenez, J. L., Prevot, A. S., and Robinson, A. L.: Review of Urban Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation from Gasoline and Diesel Motor Vehicle Emissions, Environ. Sci. Technol., 51, 1074–1093, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04509, 2017.
Hansen, A. D. A., Rosen, H., and Novakov, T.: The aethalometer – An instrument for the real-time measurement of optical absorption by aerosol particles, Sci. Total Environ., 36, 191–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(84)90265-1, 1984.
Healy, R. M., Wang, J. M., Jeong, C. H., Lee, A. K. Y., Willis, M. D., Jaroudi, E., Zimmerman, N., Hilker, N., Murphy, M., Eckhardt, S., Stohl, A., Abbatt, J. P. D., Wenger, J. C., and Evans, G. J.: Light-absorbing properties of ambient black carbon and brown carbon from fossil fuel and biomass burning sources, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 6619–6633, https://doi.org/10.1002/2015jd023382, 2015.
Heil, A. and Goldammer, J.: Smoke-haze pollution: a review of the 1997 episode in Southeast Asia, Reg. Environ. Change, 2, 24–37, https://doi.org/10.1007/s101130100021, 2001.
Henry, R., Norris, G. A., Vedantham, R., and Turner, J. R.: Source Region Identification Using Kernel Smoothing, Environ. Sci. Technol., 43, 4090–4097, https://doi.org/10.1021/es8011723, 2009.
Jaafar, S. A., Latif, M. T., Razak, I. S., Wahid, N. B. A., Khan, M. F., and Srithawirat, T.: Composition of carbohydrates, surfactants, major elements and anions in PM2.5 during the 2013 Southeast Asia high pollution episode in Malaysia, Particuology, 37, 119–126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2017.04.012, 2018.
Jimenez, J. L., Jayne, J. T., Shi, Q., Kolb, C. E., Worsnop, D. R., Yourshaw, I., Seinfeld, J. H., Flagan, R. C., Zhang, X., Smith, K. A., Morris, J. W., and Davidovits, P.: Ambient aerosol sampling using the Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 8425, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD001213, 2003.
Jimenez, J. L., Canagaratna, M. R., Donahue, N. M., Prevot, A. S., Zhang, Q., Kroll, J. H., DeCarlo, P. F., Allan, J. D., Coe, H., Ng, N. L., Aiken, A. C., Docherty, K. S., Ulbrich, I. M., Grieshop, A. P., Robinson, A. L., Duplissy, J., Smith, J. D., Wilson, K. R., Lanz, V. A., Hueglin, C., Sun, Y. L., Tian, J., Laaksonen, A., Raatikainen, T., Rautiainen, J., Vaattovaara, P., Ehn, M., Kulmala, M., Tomlinson, J. M., Collins, D. R., Cubison, M. J., Dunlea, E. J., Huffman, J. A., Onasch, T. B., Alfarra, M. R., Williams, P. I., Bower, K., Kondo, Y., Schneider, J., Drewnick, F., Borrmann, S., Weimer, S., Demerjian, K., Salcedo, D., Cottrell, L., Griffin, R., Takami, A., Miyoshi, T., Hatakeyama, S., Shimono, A., Sun, J. Y., Zhang, Y. M., Dzepina, K., Kimmel, J. R., Sueper, D., Jayne, J. T., Herndon, S. C., Trimborn, A. M., Williams, L. R., Wood, E. C., Middlebrook, A. M., Kolb, C. E., Baltensperger, U., and Worsnop, D. R.: Evolution of organic aerosols in the atmosphere, Science, 326, 1525–1529, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1180353, 2009.
Kodros, J. K., Papanastasiou, D. K., Paglione, M., Masiol, M., Squizzato, S., Florou, K., Skyllakou, K., Kaltsonoudis, C., Nenes, A., and Pandis, S. N.: Rapid dark aging of biomass burning as an overlooked source of oxidized organic aerosol, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 117, 33028–33033, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2010365117, 2020.
Kroll, J. H., Donahue, N. M., Jimenez, J. L., Kessler, S. H., Canagaratna, M. R., Wilson, K. R., Altieri, K. E., Mazzoleni, L. R., Wozniak, A. S., Bluhm, H., Mysak, E. R., Smith, J. D., Kolb, C. E., and Worsnop, D. R.: Carbon oxidation state as a metric for describing the chemistry of atmospheric organic aerosol, Nat. Chem., 3, 133–139, https://doi.org/10.1038/nchem.948, 2011.
Kuwata, M.: Atmospheric emissions, processes, and impacts of tropical peatland fire haze in Equatorial Asia: A review, Atmos. Environ., 331, 120575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2024.120575, 2024.
Kuwata, M., Kondo, Y., and Takegawa, N.: Critical condensed mass for activation of black carbon as cloud condensation nuclei in Tokyo, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, D20202, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD012086, 2009.
Lau, H. C., Ramakrishna, S., Zhang, K., and Hameed, M. Z. S.: A Decarbonization Roadmap for Singapore and Its Energy Policy Implications, Energies, 14, 6455, https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206455, 2021.
Lee, J. H. and Hopke, P. K.: Apportioning sources of PM2.5 in St. Louis, MO using speciation trends network data, Atmos. Environ., 40, 360–377, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.11.074, 2006.
Lee, A. K. Y., Willis, M. D., Healy, R. M., Onasch, T. B., and Abbatt, J. P. D.: Mixing state of carbonaceous aerosol in an urban environment: single particle characterization using the soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SP-AMS), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 1823–1841, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-1823-2015, 2015.
Lee, A. K. Y., Willis, M. D., Healy, R. M., Wang, J. M., Jeong, C.-H., Wenger, J. C., Evans, G. J., and Abbatt, J. P. D.: Single-particle characterization of biomass burning organic aerosol (BBOA): evidence for non-uniform mixing of high molecular weight organics and potassium, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 5561–5572, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-5561-2016, 2016.
Lee, A. K. Y., Chen, C.-L., Liu, J., Price, D. J., Betha, R., Russell, L. M., Zhang, X., and Cappa, C. D.: Formation of secondary organic aerosol coating on black carbon particles near vehicular emissions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 15055–15067, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-15055-2017, 2017.
Lee, A. K. Y., Rivellini, L. H., Chen, C. L., Liu, J., Price, D. J., Betha, R., Russell, L. M., Zhang, X., and Cappa, C. D.: Influences of Primary Emission and Secondary Coating Formation on the Particle Diversity and Mixing State of Black Carbon Particles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 53, 9429–9438, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b03064, 2019.
Li, J., Pósfai, M., Hobbs, P. V., and Buseck, P. R.: Individual aerosol particles from biomass burning in southern Africa: 2, Compositions and aging of inorganic particles, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 8484, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002310, 2003.
Li, W. J., Shao, L. Y., and Buseck, P. R.: Haze types in Beijing and the influence of agricultural biomass burning, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 8119–8130, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-8119-2010, 2010.
Lin, P., Aiona, P. K., Li, Y., Shiraiwa, M., Laskin, J., Nizkorodov, S. A., and Laskin, A.: Molecular Characterization of Brown Carbon in Biomass Burning Aerosol Particles, Environ. Sci. Technol., 50, 11815–11824, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b03024, 2016.
Lin, P., Bluvshtein, N., Rudich, Y., Nizkorodov, S. A., Laskin, J., and Laskin, A.: Molecular Chemistry of Atmospheric Brown Carbon Inferred from a Nationwide Biomass Burning Event, Environ. Sci. Technol., 51, 11561–11570, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b02276, 2017.
Liu, D., Whitehead, J., Alfarra, M. R., Reyes-Villegas, E., Spracklen, Dominick, V., Reddington, C. L., Kong, S., Williams, P. I., Ting, Y.-C., Haslett, S., Taylor, J. W., Flynn, M. J., Morgan, W. T., McFiggans, G., Coe, H., and Allan, J. D.: Black-carbon absorption enhancement in the atmosphere determined by particle mixing state, Nat. Geosci., 10, 184–188, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2901, 2017.
Ma, M., Rivellini, L.-H., Cui, Y., Willis, M. D., Wilkie, R., Abbatt, J. P. D., Canagaratna, M. R., Wang, J., Ge, X., and Lee, A. K. Y.: Elemental analysis of oxygenated organic coating on black carbon particles using a soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 14, 2799–2812, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-14-2799-2021, 2021.
Ma, M., Rivellini, L.-H., Kasthuriarachchi, N., Zhu, Q., Zong, Y., Yu, W., Yang, W., Kraft, M., and Lee, A. K. Y.: Effects of polyoxymethylene dimethyl ether (PODEn) blended fuel on diesel engine emission: Insight from soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometry and aethalometer measurements, Atmos. Environ. X, 18, 100216, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeaoa.2023.100216, 2023.
Malmborg, V. B., Eriksson, A. C., Shen, M., Nilsson, P., Gallo, Y., Waldheim, B., Martinsson, J., Andersson, O., and Pagels, J.: Evolution of In-Cylinder Diesel Engine Soot and Emission Characteristics Investigated with Online Aerosol Mass Spectrometry, Environ. Sci. Technol., 51, 1876–1885, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b03391, 2017.
Massoli, P., Fortner, E. C., Canagaratna, M. R., Williams, L. R., Zhang, Q., Sun, Y., Schwab, J. J., Trimborn, A., Onasch, T. B., Demerjian, K. L., Kolb, C. E., Worsnop, D. R., and Jayne, J. T.: Pollution Gradients and Chemical Characterization of Particulate Matter from Vehicular Traffic near Major Roadways: Results from the 2009 Queens College Air Quality Study in NYC, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 46, 1201–1218, 10.1080/02786826.2012.701784, 2012.
Massoli, P., Onasch, T. B., Cappa, C. D., Nuamaan, I., Hakala, J., Hayden, K., Li, S.-M., Sueper, D. T., Bates, T. S., Quinn, P. K., Jayne, J. T., and Worsnop, D. R.: Characterization of black carbon-containing particles from soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer measurements on the R/V Atlantis during CalNex 2010, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 2575–2593, https://doi.org/10.1002/2014jd022834, 2015.
Murphy, D. M. and Thomson, D. S.: Chemical composition of single aerosol particles at Idaho Hill: Positive ion measurements, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 6341–6352, https://doi.org/10.1029/96JD00858, 1997.
Ng, N. L., Canagaratna, M. R., Zhang, Q., Jimenez, J. L., Tian, J., Ulbrich, I. M., Kroll, J. H., Docherty, K. S., Chhabra, P. S., Bahreini, R., Murphy, S. M., Seinfeld, J. H., Hildebrandt, L., Donahue, N. M., DeCarlo, P. F., Lanz, V. A., Prévôt, A. S. H., Dinar, E., Rudich, Y., and Worsnop, D. R.: Organic aerosol components observed in Northern Hemispheric datasets from Aerosol Mass Spectrometry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4625–4641, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-4625-2010, 2010.
Ng, N. L., Brown, S. S., Archibald, A. T., Atlas, E., Cohen, R. C., Crowley, J. N., Day, D. A., Donahue, N. M., Fry, J. L., Fuchs, H., Griffin, R. J., Guzman, M. I., Herrmann, H., Hodzic, A., Iinuma, Y., Jimenez, J. L., Kiendler-Scharr, A., Lee, B. H., Luecken, D. J., Mao, J., McLaren, R., Mutzel, A., Osthoff, H. D., Ouyang, B., Picquet-Varrault, B., Platt, U., Pye, H. O. T., Rudich, Y., Schwantes, R. H., Shiraiwa, M., Stutz, J., Thornton, J. A., Tilgner, A., Williams, B. J., and Zaveri, R. A.: Nitrate radicals and biogenic volatile organic compounds: oxidation, mechanisms, and organic aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 17, 2103–2162, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-17-2103-2017, 2017.
Onasch, T. B., Trimborn, A., Fortner, E. C., Jayne, J. T., Kok, G. L., Williams, L. R., Davidovits, P., and Worsnop, D. R.: Soot Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometer: Development, Validation, and Initial Application, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 46, 804–817, https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2012.663948, 2012.
Onasch, T. B., Fortner, E. C., Trimborn, A. M., Lambe, A. T., Tiwari, A. J., Marr, L. C., Corbin, J. C., Mensah, A. A., Williams, L. R., Davidovits, P., and Worsnop, D. R.: Investigations of SP-AMS Carbon Ion Distributions as a Function of Refractory Black Carbon Particle Type, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 49, 409–422, https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2015.1039959, 2015.
Othman, M., Latif, M. T., Hamid, H. H. A., Uning, R., Khumsaeng, T., Phairuang, W., Daud, Z., Idris, J., Sofwan, N. M., and Lung, S.-C. C.: Spatial–temporal variability and health impact of particulate matter during a 2019–2020 biomass burning event in Southeast Asia, Sci. Rep., 12, 7630, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-11409-z, 2022.
Paatero, P. and Hopke, P. K.: Discarding or downweighting high-noise variables in factor analytic models, Anal. Chim. Acta, 490, 277–289, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(02)01643-4, 2003.
Peng, J., Hu, M., Guo, S., Du, Z., Zheng, J., Shang, D., Levy Zamora, M., Zeng, L., Shao, M., Wu, Y. S., Zheng, J., Wang, Y., Glen, C. R., Collins, D. R., Molina, M. J., and Zhang, R.: Markedly enhanced absorption and direct radiative forcing of black carbon under polluted urban environments, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 113, 4266–4271, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602310113, 2016.
Petit, J. E., Favez, O., Albinet, A., and Canonaco, F.: A user-friendly tool for comprehensive evaluation of the geographical origins of atmospheric pollution: Wind and trajectory analyses, Environ. Model. Softw., 88, 183–187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2016.11.022, 2017.
Polissar, A. V., Hopke, P. K., and Poirot, R. L.: Atmospheric Aerosol over Vermont: Chemical Composition and Sources, Environ. Sci. Technol., 35, 4604–4621, https://doi.org/10.1021/es0105865, 2001.
Reff, A., Eberly, S. I., and Bhave, P. V.: Receptor Modeling of Ambient Particulate Matter Data Using Positive Matrix Factorization: Review of Existing Methods, J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc., 57, 146–154, 2012.
Rivellini, L.-H., Adam, M. G., Kasthuriarachchi, N., and Lee, A. K. Y.: Characterization of carbonaceous aerosols in Singapore: insight from black carbon fragments and trace metal ions detected by a soot particle aerosol mass spectrometer, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 5977–5993, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-5977-2020, 2020.
Saarikoski, S., Timonen, H., Carbone, S., Kuuluvainen, H., Niemi, J. V., Kousa, A., Rönkkö, T., Worsnop, D., Hillamo, R., and Pirjola, L.: Investigating the chemical species in submicron particles emitted by city buses, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 51, 317–329, https://doi.org/10.1080/02786826.2016.1261992, 2016.
Saarikoski, S., Reyes, F., Vázquez, Y., Tagle, M., Timonen, H., Aurela, M., Carbone, S., Worsnop, D. R., Hillamo, R., and Oyola, P.: Characterization of submicron aerosol chemical composition and sources in the coastal area of Central Chile, Atmos. Environ., 199, 391–401, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.11.040, 2019.
Sueper, D.: ToF-AMS Analysis Software, http://cires1.colorado.edu/jimenez-group/ToFAMSResources/ToFSoftware/ (last access: 18 June 2024), 2015.
Sun, Y. L., Zhang, Q., Schwab, J. J., Yang, T., Ng, N. L., and Demerjian, K. L.: Factor analysis of combined organic and inorganic aerosol mass spectra from high resolution aerosol mass spectrometer measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 8537–8551, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-8537-2012, 2012.
Tehrani, M. W., Fortner, E. C., Robinson, E. S., Chiger, A. A., Sheu, R., Werden, B. S., Gigot, C., Yacovitch, T., Van Bramer, S., Burke, T., Koehler, K., Nachman, K. E., Rule, A. M., and DeCarlo, P. F.: Characterizing metals in particulate pollution in communities at the fenceline of heavy industry: combining mobile monitoring and size-resolved filter measurements, Environ. Sci.-Proc. Imp., 25, 1491–1504, https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EM00142C, 2023.
Ulbrich, I. M., Canagaratna, M. R., Zhang, Q., Worsnop, D. R., and Jimenez, J. L.: Interpretation of organic components from Positive Matrix Factorization of aerosol mass spectrometric data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2891–2918, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-2891-2009, 2009.
Van, D.-A., Vu, T. V., Nguyen, T.-H. T., Vo, L.-H. T., Le, N. H., Nguyen, P. H. T., Pongkiatkul, P., and Ly, B.-T.: A Review of Characteristics, Causes, and Formation Mechanisms of Haze in Southeast Asia, Curr. Pollut. Rep., 8, 201–220, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-022-00220-z, 2022.
Vasilakopoulou, C. N., Matrali, A., Skyllakou, K., Georgopoulou, M., Aktypis, A., Florou, K., Kaltsonoudis, C., Siouti, E., Kostenidou, E., Błaziak, A., Nenes, A., Papagiannis, S., Eleftheriadis, K., Patoulias, D., Kioutsioukis, I., and Pandis, S. N.: Rapid transformation of wildfire emissions to harmful background aerosol, npj Clim. Atmos. Sci., 6, 218, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-023-00544-7, 2023.
Wang, J., Onasch, T. B., Ge, X., Collier, S., Zhang, Q., Sun, Y., Yu, H., Chen, M., Prévôt, A. S. H., and Worsnop, D. R.: Observation of Fullerene Soot in Eastern China, Environ. Sci. Tech. Lett., 3, 121–126, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00044, 2016.
Wang, J., Zhang, Q., Chen, M., Collier, S., Zhou, S., Ge, X., Xu, J., Shi, J., Xie, C., Hu, J., Ge, S., Sun, Y., and Coe, H.: First Chemical Characterization of Refractory Black Carbon Aerosols and Associated Coatings over the Tibetan Plateau (4730 m a.s.l), Environ. Sci. Technol., 51, 14072–14082, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b03973, 2017.
Wang, J., Ye, J., Liu, D., Wu, Y., Zhao, J., Xu, W., Xie, C., Shen, F., Zhang, J., Ohno, P. E., Qin, Y., Zhao, X., Martin, S. T., Lee, A. K. Y., Fu, P., Jacob, D. J., Zhang, Q., Sun, Y., Chen, M., and Ge, X.: Characterization of submicron organic particles in Beijing during summertime: comparison between SP-AMS and HR-AMS, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 14091–14102, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-14091-2020, 2020.
Wang, J., Ye, J., Zhang, Q., Zhao, J., Wu, Y., Li, J., Liu, D., Li, W., Zhang, Y., Wu, C., Xie, C., Qin, Y., Lei, Y., Huang, X., Guo, J., Liu, P., Fu, P., Li, Y., Lee, H. C., Choi, H., Zhang, J., Liao, H., Chen, M., Sun, Y., Ge, X., Martin, S. T., and Jacob, D. J.: Aqueous production of secondary organic aerosol from fossil-fuel emissions in winter Beijing haze, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 118, e2022179118, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022179118, 2021.
Willis, M. D., Lee, A. K. Y., Onasch, T. B., Fortner, E. C., Williams, L. R., Lambe, A. T., Worsnop, D. R., and Abbatt, J. P. D.: Collection efficiency of the soot-particle aerosol mass spectrometer (SP-AMS) for internally mixed particulate black carbon, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 7, 4507–4516, https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-7-4507-2014, 2014.
Willis, M. D., Healy, R. M., Riemer, N., West, M., Wang, J. M., Jeong, C.-H., Wenger, J. C., Evans, G. J., Abbatt, J. P. D., and Lee, A. K. Y.: Quantification of black carbon mixing state from traffic: implications for aerosol optical properties, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 4693–4706, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-16-4693-2016, 2016.
World Shipping Council: World Shipping Council: Top 50 world container ports, https://www.worldshipping.org/top-50-ports, last access: 25 April 2024.
Wu, Y., Cheng, T., Liu, D., Allan, J. D., Zheng, L., and Chen, H.: Light Absorption Enhancement of Black Carbon Aerosol Constrained by Particle Morphology, Environ. Sci. Technol., 52, 6912–6919, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b00636, 2018.
Xu, J., Zhang, Q., Chen, M., Ge, X., Ren, J., and Qin, D.: Chemical composition, sources, and processes of urban aerosols during summertime in northwest China: insights from high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 12593–12611, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-12593-2014, 2014.
Xu, J., Zhang, Q., Shi, J., Ge, X., Xie, C., Wang, J., Kang, S., Zhang, R., and Wang, Y.: Chemical characteristics of submicron particles at the central Tibetan Plateau: insights from aerosol mass spectrometry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 18, 427–443, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-427-2018, 2018.
Xu, L., Suresh, S., Guo, H., Weber, R. J., and Ng, N. L.: Aerosol characterization over the southeastern United States using high-resolution aerosol mass spectrometry: spatial and seasonal variation of aerosol composition and sources with a focus on organic nitrates, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 7307–7336, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-15-7307-2015, 2015.
Yazdani, A., Takahama, S., Kodros, J. K., Paglione, M., Masiol, M., Squizzato, S., Florou, K., Kaltsonoudis, C., Jorga, S. D., Pandis, S. N., and Nenes, A.: Chemical evolution of primary and secondary biomass burning aerosols during daytime and nighttime, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 23, 7461–7477, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-23-7461-2023, 2023.
Yu, C., Liu, D., Broda, K., Joshi, R., Olfert, J., Sun, Y., Fu, P., Coe, H., and Allan, J. D.: Characterising mass-resolved mixing state of black carbon in Beijing using a morphology-independent measurement method, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 20, 3645–3661, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-3645-2020, 2020.
Zauscher, M. D., Wang, Y., Moore, M. J. K., Gaston, C. J., and Prather, K. A.: Air Quality Impact and Physicochemical Aging of Biomass Burning Aerosols during the 2007 San Diego Wildfires, Environ. Sci. Technol., 47, 7633–7643, https://doi.org/10.1021/es4004137, 2013.
Zhang, Q., Jimenez, J. L., Canagaratna, M. R., Allan, J. D., Coe, H., Ulbrich, I., Alfarra, M. R., Takami, A., Middlebrook, A. M., Sun, Y. L., Dzepina, K., Dunlea, E., Docherty, K., DeCarlo, P. F., Salcedo, D., Onasch, T., Jayne, J. T., Miyoshi, T., Shimono, A., Hatakeyama, S., Takegawa, N., Kondo, Y., Schneider, J., Drewnick, F., Borrmann, S., Weimer, S., Demerjian, K., Williams, P., Bower, K., Bahreini, R., Cottrell, L., Griffin, R. J., Rautiainen, J., Sun, J. Y., Zhang, Y. M., and Worsnop, D. R.: Ubiquity and dominance of oxygenated species in organic aerosols in anthropogenically-influenced Northern Hemisphere midlatitudes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L13801, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007gl029979, 2007.
Zhang, Q., Jimenez, J. L., Canagaratna, M. R., Ulbrich, I. M., Ng, N. L., Worsnop, D. R., and Sun, Y.: Understanding atmospheric organic aerosols via factor analysis of aerosol mass spectrometry: a review, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 401, 3045–3067, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-011-5355-y, 2011.
Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Cui, S., Huang, D. D., and Ge, X.: Aerosol Measurements by Soot Particle Aerosol Mass Spectrometer: a Review, Curr. Pollut. Rep., 6, 440–451, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40726-020-00162-4, 2020.
Short summary
This work advances our understanding of the emission and atmospheric evolution of black carbon (BC) particles in Singapore, a complex urban environment impacted by multiple local and regional combustion sources, based on the improved source apportionment analysis of real-time aerosol mass spectrometry measurement.
This work advances our understanding of the emission and atmospheric evolution of black carbon...
Altmetrics
Final-revised paper
Preprint