Articles | Volume 21, issue 13
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10039-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-10039-2021
© Author(s) 2021. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Research article
| 
06 Jul 2021
Research article |
| 06 Jul 2021
| 06 Jul 2021
Identifying the sources of uncertainty in climate model simulations of solar radiation modification with the G6sulfur and G6solar Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) simulations
Sibley School for Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Douglas G. MacMartin
Sibley School for Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
Ben Kravitz
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
Olivier Boucher
Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Sorbonne Université/CNRS, Paris, France
Andy Jones
Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, EX1 3PB, UK
Thibaut Lurton
Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Sorbonne Université/CNRS, Paris, France
Michou Martine
CNRM, Université de Toulouse, Météo-France, CNRS, Toulouse, France
Michael J. Mills
Atmospheric Chemistry, Observations, and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
Pierre Nabat
CNRM, Université de Toulouse, Météo-France, CNRS, Toulouse, France
Ulrike Niemeier
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Roland Séférian
CNRM, Université de Toulouse, Météo-France, CNRS, Toulouse, France
Simone Tilmes
Atmospheric Chemistry, Observations, and Modeling Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
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Cited
62 citations as recorded by crossref.
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- World Climate Research Programme lighthouse activity: an assessment of major research gaps in solar radiation modification research J. Haywood et al. 10.3389/fclim.2025.1507479
- Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection Geoengineering on the Summer Climate Over East Asia Z. Liu et al. 10.1029/2021JD035049
- Projected future changes in extreme precipitation over China under stratospheric aerosol intervention in the UKESM1 climate model O. Wang et al. 10.5194/acp-24-12355-2024
- Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on the East Asian Winter Monsoon Z. Liu et al. 10.1029/2022GL102109
- Solar Geoengineering in the Polar Regions: A Review A. Duffey et al. 10.1029/2023EF003679
- Climate response to off-equatorial stratospheric sulfur injections in three Earth system models – Part 1: Experimental protocols and surface changes D. Visioni et al. 10.5194/acp-23-663-2023
- Impact of Solar Radiation Management on Andean glacier-wide surface mass balance A. Fernández et al. 10.1038/s41612-024-00807-x
- Stratospheric injection of solid particles reduces side effects on circulation and climate compared to SO2 injections F. Stefanetti et al. 10.1088/2752-5295/ad9f93
- Comparison of UKESM1 and CESM2 simulations using the same multi-target stratospheric aerosol injection strategy M. Henry et al. 10.5194/acp-23-13369-2023
- Potential effects of climate change and solar radiation modification on renewable energy resources A. Kumler et al. 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114934
- “Cooling credits” are not a viable climate solution M. Diamond et al. 10.1007/s10584-023-03561-w
- Thermosteric and dynamic sea level under solar geoengineering C. Yue et al. 10.1038/s41612-023-00466-4
- Assessing the Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on US Convective Weather Environments I. Glade et al. 10.1029/2023EF004041
- Regional impacts of solar radiation modification on surface temperature and precipitation in Mainland Southeast Asia and the adjacent oceans P. Narenpitak et al. 10.1038/s41598-024-73149-6
- Tropical hydro-climatic responses to global warming and solar radiation modification in the Kelantan River Basin, Malaysia H. Du et al. 10.2166/wcc.2025.587
- Stratospheric ozone response to sulfate aerosol and solar dimming climate interventions based on the G6 Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) simulations S. Tilmes et al. 10.5194/acp-22-4557-2022
- Interactive stratospheric aerosol models' response to different amounts and altitudes of SO2 injection during the 1991 Pinatubo eruption I. Quaglia et al. 10.5194/acp-23-921-2023
- South Atlantic subtropical anticyclone responses to stratospheric aerosol injection T. Chile Baldoni et al. 10.1088/2752-5295/ada8cb
- Physically based equation representing the forcing-driven precipitation in climate models D. Lee et al. 10.1088/1748-9326/acf50f
- Climate response to off-equatorial stratospheric sulfur injections in three Earth system models – Part 2: Stratospheric and free-tropospheric response E. Bednarz et al. 10.5194/acp-23-687-2023
- The Overlooked Role of the Stratosphere Under a Solar Constant Reduction E. Bednarz et al. 10.1029/2022GL098773
- On the Linearity of External Forcing Response in Solar Geoengineering Experiments J. Virgin & C. Fletcher 10.1029/2022GL100200
- Performance assessment for climate intervention (PACI): preliminary application to a stratospheric aerosol injection scenario L. Wheeler et al. 10.3389/fenvs.2023.1205515
- The Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on Extreme Fire Weather Risk D. Touma et al. 10.1029/2023EF003626
- Climate, Variability, and Climate Sensitivity of “Middle Atmosphere” Chemistry Configurations of the Community Earth System Model Version 2, Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model Version 6 (CESM2(WACCM6)) N. Davis et al. 10.1029/2022MS003579
- The impact of stratospheric aerosol intervention on the North Atlantic and Quasi-Biennial Oscillations in the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) G6sulfur experiment A. Jones et al. 10.5194/acp-22-2999-2022
- The potential environmental and climate impacts of stratospheric aerosol injection: a review H. Huynh & V. McNeill 10.1039/D3EA00134B
- Projected global sulfur deposition with climate intervention H. Rubin et al. 10.1016/j.gecadv.2024.100011
- Assessment of solar geoengineering impact on precipitation and temperature extremes in the Muda River Basin, Malaysia using CMIP6 SSP and GeoMIP6 G6 simulations M. Tan et al. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174817
- The Indonesian Throughflow circulation under solar geoengineering C. Shen et al. 10.5194/esd-14-1317-2023
- Hemispherically symmetric strategies for stratospheric aerosol injection Y. Zhang et al. 10.5194/esd-15-191-2024
- Effects of solar radiation modification on precipitation extremes in Southeast Asia: Insights from the GeoMIP G6 experiments Z. FENG et al. 10.1016/j.accre.2025.04.009
- Research criteria towards an interdisciplinary Stratospheric Aerosol Intervention assessment S. Tilmes et al. 10.1093/oxfclm/kgae010
- Future water storage changes over the Mediterranean, Middle East, and North Africa in response to global warming and stratospheric aerosol intervention A. Rezaei et al. 10.5194/esd-15-91-2024
- Response of the Southern Hemisphere extratropical cyclone climatology to climate intervention with stratospheric aerosol injection M. Reboita et al. 10.1088/2752-5295/ad519e
- A fully coupled solid-particle microphysics scheme for stratospheric aerosol injections within the aerosol–chemistry–climate model SOCOL-AERv2 S. Vattioni et al. 10.5194/gmd-17-7767-2024
- Northern-high-latitude permafrost and terrestrial carbon response to two solar geoengineering scenarios Y. Chen et al. 10.5194/esd-14-55-2023
- PInc-PanTher estimates of Arctic permafrost soil carbon under the GeoMIP G6solar and G6sulfur experiments A. Liu et al. 10.5194/esd-14-39-2023
- Climate intervention using marine cloud brightening (MCB) compared with stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) in the UKESM1 climate model J. Haywood et al. 10.5194/acp-23-15305-2023
- How does the latitude of stratospheric aerosol injection affect the climate in UKESM1? M. Henry et al. 10.5194/acp-24-13253-2024
- Dependency of the impacts of geoengineering on the stratospheric sulfur injection strategy – Part 2: How changes in the hydrological cycle depend on the injection rate and model used A. Laakso et al. 10.5194/esd-15-405-2024
- Optimal climate intervention scenarios for crop production vary by nation B. Clark et al. 10.1038/s43016-023-00853-3
- Accounting for transience in the baseline climate state changes the surface climate response attributed to stratospheric aerosol injection A. Duffey & P. Irvine 10.1088/2752-5295/ad9f91
- Assessing Responses and Impacts of Solar climate intervention on the Earth system with stratospheric aerosol injection (ARISE-SAI): protocol and initial results from the first simulations J. Richter et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-8221-2022
- Dependence of strategic solar climate intervention on background scenario and model physics J. Fasullo & J. Richter 10.5194/acp-23-163-2023
- Future changes in atmospheric rivers over East Asia under stratospheric aerosol intervention J. Liang & J. Haywood 10.5194/acp-23-1687-2023
- Environmental consequences of interacting effects of changes in stratospheric ozone, ultraviolet radiation, and climate: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2024 P. Neale et al. 10.1007/s43630-025-00687-x
- Climatic characteristics and meteorology-sensitivity of surface solar radiation in reanalysis products compared to observations and satellite data over China Q. Wen et al. 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2024.120713
- An approach to sulfate geoengineering with surface emissions of carbonyl sulfide I. Quaglia et al. 10.5194/acp-22-5757-2022
- The Choice of Baseline Period Influences the Assessments of the Outcomes of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection D. Visioni et al. 10.1029/2023EF003851
- Impact of solar geoengineering on wildfires in the 21st century in CESM2/WACCM6 W. Tang et al. 10.5194/acp-23-5467-2023
- Solar geoengineering and carbon removal significantly lower economic climate damages A. Liu et al. 10.1016/j.oneear.2023.09.004
- Responses of Extreme Climates in South Asia under a G6sulfur Scenario of Climate Engineering J. Wang et al. 10.3390/atmos14101490
- Informative risk analyses of radiative forcing geoengineering require proper counterfactuals W. Lee et al. 10.1038/s43247-024-01881-y
- South Asian Summer Monsoon under stratospheric aerosol intervention A. Asutosh et al. 10.1038/s41612-024-00875-z
- G6-1.5K-SAI: a new Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) experiment integrating recent advances in solar radiation modification studies D. Visioni et al. 10.5194/gmd-17-2583-2024
- SURFER v2.0: a flexible and simple model linking anthropogenic CO2 emissions and solar radiation modification to ocean acidification and sea level rise M. Martínez Montero et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-8059-2022
- Opinion: The scientific and community-building roles of the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) – past, present, and future D. Visioni et al. 10.5194/acp-23-5149-2023
- Injection strategy – a driver of atmospheric circulation and ozone response to stratospheric aerosol geoengineering E. Bednarz et al. 10.5194/acp-23-13665-2023
- Flawed Emergency Intervention: Slow Ocean Response to Abrupt Stratospheric Aerosol Injection D. Pflüger et al. 10.1029/2023GL106132
- Brief communication: Reduction in the future Greenland ice sheet surface melt with the help of solar geoengineering X. Fettweis et al. 10.5194/tc-15-3013-2021
61 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Assessing the consequences of including aerosol absorption in potential stratospheric aerosol injection climate intervention strategies J. Haywood et al. 10.5194/acp-22-6135-2022
- World Climate Research Programme lighthouse activity: an assessment of major research gaps in solar radiation modification research J. Haywood et al. 10.3389/fclim.2025.1507479
- Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection Geoengineering on the Summer Climate Over East Asia Z. Liu et al. 10.1029/2021JD035049
- Projected future changes in extreme precipitation over China under stratospheric aerosol intervention in the UKESM1 climate model O. Wang et al. 10.5194/acp-24-12355-2024
- Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on the East Asian Winter Monsoon Z. Liu et al. 10.1029/2022GL102109
- Solar Geoengineering in the Polar Regions: A Review A. Duffey et al. 10.1029/2023EF003679
- Climate response to off-equatorial stratospheric sulfur injections in three Earth system models – Part 1: Experimental protocols and surface changes D. Visioni et al. 10.5194/acp-23-663-2023
- Impact of Solar Radiation Management on Andean glacier-wide surface mass balance A. Fernández et al. 10.1038/s41612-024-00807-x
- Stratospheric injection of solid particles reduces side effects on circulation and climate compared to SO2 injections F. Stefanetti et al. 10.1088/2752-5295/ad9f93
- Comparison of UKESM1 and CESM2 simulations using the same multi-target stratospheric aerosol injection strategy M. Henry et al. 10.5194/acp-23-13369-2023
- Potential effects of climate change and solar radiation modification on renewable energy resources A. Kumler et al. 10.1016/j.rser.2024.114934
- “Cooling credits” are not a viable climate solution M. Diamond et al. 10.1007/s10584-023-03561-w
- Thermosteric and dynamic sea level under solar geoengineering C. Yue et al. 10.1038/s41612-023-00466-4
- Assessing the Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on US Convective Weather Environments I. Glade et al. 10.1029/2023EF004041
- Regional impacts of solar radiation modification on surface temperature and precipitation in Mainland Southeast Asia and the adjacent oceans P. Narenpitak et al. 10.1038/s41598-024-73149-6
- Tropical hydro-climatic responses to global warming and solar radiation modification in the Kelantan River Basin, Malaysia H. Du et al. 10.2166/wcc.2025.587
- Stratospheric ozone response to sulfate aerosol and solar dimming climate interventions based on the G6 Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) simulations S. Tilmes et al. 10.5194/acp-22-4557-2022
- Interactive stratospheric aerosol models' response to different amounts and altitudes of SO2 injection during the 1991 Pinatubo eruption I. Quaglia et al. 10.5194/acp-23-921-2023
- South Atlantic subtropical anticyclone responses to stratospheric aerosol injection T. Chile Baldoni et al. 10.1088/2752-5295/ada8cb
- Physically based equation representing the forcing-driven precipitation in climate models D. Lee et al. 10.1088/1748-9326/acf50f
- Climate response to off-equatorial stratospheric sulfur injections in three Earth system models – Part 2: Stratospheric and free-tropospheric response E. Bednarz et al. 10.5194/acp-23-687-2023
- The Overlooked Role of the Stratosphere Under a Solar Constant Reduction E. Bednarz et al. 10.1029/2022GL098773
- On the Linearity of External Forcing Response in Solar Geoengineering Experiments J. Virgin & C. Fletcher 10.1029/2022GL100200
- Performance assessment for climate intervention (PACI): preliminary application to a stratospheric aerosol injection scenario L. Wheeler et al. 10.3389/fenvs.2023.1205515
- The Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on Extreme Fire Weather Risk D. Touma et al. 10.1029/2023EF003626
- Climate, Variability, and Climate Sensitivity of “Middle Atmosphere” Chemistry Configurations of the Community Earth System Model Version 2, Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model Version 6 (CESM2(WACCM6)) N. Davis et al. 10.1029/2022MS003579
- The impact of stratospheric aerosol intervention on the North Atlantic and Quasi-Biennial Oscillations in the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) G6sulfur experiment A. Jones et al. 10.5194/acp-22-2999-2022
- The potential environmental and climate impacts of stratospheric aerosol injection: a review H. Huynh & V. McNeill 10.1039/D3EA00134B
- Projected global sulfur deposition with climate intervention H. Rubin et al. 10.1016/j.gecadv.2024.100011
- Assessment of solar geoengineering impact on precipitation and temperature extremes in the Muda River Basin, Malaysia using CMIP6 SSP and GeoMIP6 G6 simulations M. Tan et al. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174817
- The Indonesian Throughflow circulation under solar geoengineering C. Shen et al. 10.5194/esd-14-1317-2023
- Hemispherically symmetric strategies for stratospheric aerosol injection Y. Zhang et al. 10.5194/esd-15-191-2024
- Effects of solar radiation modification on precipitation extremes in Southeast Asia: Insights from the GeoMIP G6 experiments Z. FENG et al. 10.1016/j.accre.2025.04.009
- Research criteria towards an interdisciplinary Stratospheric Aerosol Intervention assessment S. Tilmes et al. 10.1093/oxfclm/kgae010
- Future water storage changes over the Mediterranean, Middle East, and North Africa in response to global warming and stratospheric aerosol intervention A. Rezaei et al. 10.5194/esd-15-91-2024
- Response of the Southern Hemisphere extratropical cyclone climatology to climate intervention with stratospheric aerosol injection M. Reboita et al. 10.1088/2752-5295/ad519e
- A fully coupled solid-particle microphysics scheme for stratospheric aerosol injections within the aerosol–chemistry–climate model SOCOL-AERv2 S. Vattioni et al. 10.5194/gmd-17-7767-2024
- Northern-high-latitude permafrost and terrestrial carbon response to two solar geoengineering scenarios Y. Chen et al. 10.5194/esd-14-55-2023
- PInc-PanTher estimates of Arctic permafrost soil carbon under the GeoMIP G6solar and G6sulfur experiments A. Liu et al. 10.5194/esd-14-39-2023
- Climate intervention using marine cloud brightening (MCB) compared with stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI) in the UKESM1 climate model J. Haywood et al. 10.5194/acp-23-15305-2023
- How does the latitude of stratospheric aerosol injection affect the climate in UKESM1? M. Henry et al. 10.5194/acp-24-13253-2024
- Dependency of the impacts of geoengineering on the stratospheric sulfur injection strategy – Part 2: How changes in the hydrological cycle depend on the injection rate and model used A. Laakso et al. 10.5194/esd-15-405-2024
- Optimal climate intervention scenarios for crop production vary by nation B. Clark et al. 10.1038/s43016-023-00853-3
- Accounting for transience in the baseline climate state changes the surface climate response attributed to stratospheric aerosol injection A. Duffey & P. Irvine 10.1088/2752-5295/ad9f91
- Assessing Responses and Impacts of Solar climate intervention on the Earth system with stratospheric aerosol injection (ARISE-SAI): protocol and initial results from the first simulations J. Richter et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-8221-2022
- Dependence of strategic solar climate intervention on background scenario and model physics J. Fasullo & J. Richter 10.5194/acp-23-163-2023
- Future changes in atmospheric rivers over East Asia under stratospheric aerosol intervention J. Liang & J. Haywood 10.5194/acp-23-1687-2023
- Environmental consequences of interacting effects of changes in stratospheric ozone, ultraviolet radiation, and climate: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2024 P. Neale et al. 10.1007/s43630-025-00687-x
- Climatic characteristics and meteorology-sensitivity of surface solar radiation in reanalysis products compared to observations and satellite data over China Q. Wen et al. 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2024.120713
- An approach to sulfate geoengineering with surface emissions of carbonyl sulfide I. Quaglia et al. 10.5194/acp-22-5757-2022
- The Choice of Baseline Period Influences the Assessments of the Outcomes of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection D. Visioni et al. 10.1029/2023EF003851
- Impact of solar geoengineering on wildfires in the 21st century in CESM2/WACCM6 W. Tang et al. 10.5194/acp-23-5467-2023
- Solar geoengineering and carbon removal significantly lower economic climate damages A. Liu et al. 10.1016/j.oneear.2023.09.004
- Responses of Extreme Climates in South Asia under a G6sulfur Scenario of Climate Engineering J. Wang et al. 10.3390/atmos14101490
- Informative risk analyses of radiative forcing geoengineering require proper counterfactuals W. Lee et al. 10.1038/s43247-024-01881-y
- South Asian Summer Monsoon under stratospheric aerosol intervention A. Asutosh et al. 10.1038/s41612-024-00875-z
- G6-1.5K-SAI: a new Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) experiment integrating recent advances in solar radiation modification studies D. Visioni et al. 10.5194/gmd-17-2583-2024
- SURFER v2.0: a flexible and simple model linking anthropogenic CO2 emissions and solar radiation modification to ocean acidification and sea level rise M. Martínez Montero et al. 10.5194/gmd-15-8059-2022
- Opinion: The scientific and community-building roles of the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP) – past, present, and future D. Visioni et al. 10.5194/acp-23-5149-2023
- Injection strategy – a driver of atmospheric circulation and ozone response to stratospheric aerosol geoengineering E. Bednarz et al. 10.5194/acp-23-13665-2023
- Flawed Emergency Intervention: Slow Ocean Response to Abrupt Stratospheric Aerosol Injection D. Pflüger et al. 10.1029/2023GL106132
Discussed (preprint)
Latest update: 08 May 2025
Short summary
A new set of simulations is used to investigate commonalities, differences and sources of uncertainty when simulating the injection of SO2 in the stratosphere in order to mitigate the effects of climate change (solar geoengineering). The models differ in how they simulate the aerosols and how they spread around the stratosphere, resulting in differences in projected regional impacts. Overall, however, the models agree that aerosols have the potential to mitigate the warming produced by GHGs.
A new set of simulations is used to investigate commonalities, differences and sources of...
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