Comparison of tropospheric chemistry schemes for use within global models

Comparison of tropospheric chemistry schemes for use within global models K. M. Emmerson and M. J. Evans School of Earth & Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK Received: 24 September 2008 – Accepted: 6 October 2008 – Published: 28 November 2008 Correspondence to: K. Emmerson (k.emmerson@see.leeds.ac.uk) Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.


Introduction
Anthropogenically induced climate change is largely caused by the changing composition of the atmosphere.Over the last 100 years the concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ) and ozone (O 3 ), have all increased significantly (IPCC, 2007).The associated radiative forcing is dominated by CO 2 , however CH 4 and O 3 also play Figures

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Printer-friendly Version Interactive Discussion composition, it is essential that we understand the photochemistry of the troposphere.Tropospheric photochemistry is dominated by a complex odd oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen radical chemistry, coupled to the oxidation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (Logan et al., 1981).This presents various challenges.A complete and explicit representation of tropospheric chemistry is limited by our understanding of the concentrations of gas phase species (often at very low concentrations) and their associated reactions.Even with our limited knowledge, the state of the science representation requires many thousands of species and tens of thousands of reactions.In the past decade, research has concentrated on producing large, chemically explicit, reaction schemes.For example, Aumont et al. (2005) produced a scheme of 350 000 species and 2 million reactions.The Master Chemical Mechanism (Jenkin et al., 2003;Saunders et al., 2003;Bloss et al., 2005) contains approximately 5600 species and 13 500 reactions.Representing this level of chemical complexity within a global chemistryclimate model is beyond the computational resources currently available.Simplifications are required that retain the essential features of the chemistry whilst removing most of the complexity.Various methods have been used in the past in global models, with varying degrees of success.Simplifications involve reducing the number of VOCs considered and by lumping the carbon from the discarded species into representative surrogates.
In an earlier study, Derwent (1990) used 24 chemical schemes to compare modelled O 3 concentrations observed at sites across Europe.He determined that the more explicit schemes were able to capture the peak concentrations in O 3 , peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN) and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) more often than the highly parameterized schemes.The "PhotoComp" group was set up to provide a model intercomparison for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, on modelling tropospheric HO x cycling and O 3 production (Olsen et al., 1997).Box models from 21 research groups were run under a range of atmospheric conditions to investigate the differences in the gas phase photochemistry.No attempt was made to standardize complex and photolytic reaction rates.The source of resulting disparity in O 3 concentrations was found to be Introduction

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Full Screen / Esc Printer-friendly Version Interactive Discussion mainly due to differences in the reaction rate of O 3 with HO 2 .The problem was traced back to whether water dependence in the HO 2 +HO 2 →H 2 O 2 reaction was included, and differing photolysis between models.In this paper, six small and "reduced" schemes currently employed in composition transport models are compared to a "state of the science" explicit chemistry scheme.
The aim is to evaluate the schemes under a range of different conditions and to identify areas of weakness.

The chemistry schemes
The MCM (version 3.1) is an explicit chemical scheme which degrades 135 primary VOCs into CO 2 and H 2 O.The MCM contains approximately 5600 species and 13 500 reactions based on a predefined protocol (Jenkin et al., 2003;Saunders et al., 2003;Bloss et al., 2005).It was designed to provide regulatory controls on VOC emissions within the UK.The MCM has been tested against atmospheric measurements and smog chamber data (Jenkin and Hayman, 1999), and evaluated in urban (Emmerson et al., 2007(Emmerson et al., , 2005)), rural and marine modelling studies (Carslaw et al., 1999(Carslaw et al., , 2001;;Sommariva et al., 2004).
We use six smaller chemistry schemes in this study: CRI-reduced, GEOS-CHEM and a GEOS-CHEM extension, MOZART, TOMCAT and CBM-IV.We compare these to the explicit Master Chemical Mechanism (MCM).We note here that just because the MCM is classed as "state of the science" we are not assuming it is without limitations.
Our scheme comparisons are therefore assumed to be relative to one another, rather than a comparison with "reality".The scheme sizes and capabilities are summarized in Table 1.
Based upon the MCM, the Common Representative Intermediates mechanism (CRImech) (Jenkin et al., 2002)  smaller compounds such as formaldehyde (HCHO).These smaller species can then be treated using the MCM.The development of version 2 of CRI-mech, and a series of five reduced variants of the mechanism, has recently been reported (Jenkin et al., 2008;Watson et al., 2008).The most reduced variant (denoted "CRI v2-R5" in Watson et al., 2008) contains 196 species and 555 reactions, and is used in this work (denoted "CRI-reduced").CRI-reduced degrades 23 primary emitted VOCs including alkanes ≥C4, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and o-xylene, and biogenic compounds isoprene, α-and β-pinene.Given its size there is potential to use the CRI-reduced scheme within composition transport models in the future.The GEOS-CHEM scheme (Bey et al., 2001;Evans and Jacob, 2005) was developed for inclusion in a global atmospheric chemistry-transport model using the Goddard Earth Observation System meteorology.It has 273 reactions and considers the oxidation of methane, ethane, propane, an alkene (nominally propene), a higher alkane (nominally butane), and isoprene.Additional chemical complexity has been added to GEOS-CHEM to account for higher alkanes ≥C 4 , biogenic species (α-pinene and limonene) and aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene and m-xylene) by Ito et al. (2007).This 490 reactions scheme also includes an explicit representation of hydroxyl alkyl nitrates produced rapidly from isoprene oxidation.We test this enhanced GEOS-CHEM scheme separately and name it GEOSito.MOZART was developed by communities at NCAR in Colorado, the GFD Laboratory at Princeton and MPI at Hamburg (Horowitz et al., 2003).It has 158 reactions degrading alkanes ≤C 4 , alkenes ≤C 3 , 4 oxygenated compounds and isoprene.A lumped monoterpene compound has been included to add to the biogenic modelling capabilities.
The TOMCAT chemistry scheme (Chipperfield et al., 1993;Law et al., 1998;Stockwell and Chipperfield, 1999) contains 152 reactions and considers the oxidation of methane, ethane and propane.TOMCAT has been increased in recent years by the addition of the 34 reaction Mainz Isoprene Mechanism (Poschl et al., 2000).There is no representation for higher hydrocarbons or aromatic chemistry.The CBM-IV scheme (Gery et al., 1989) is the smallest scheme tested in this work with 85 reactions, and is used for air pollution regulation.It considers the oxidation of lumped paraffin and olefin species, such as toluene and xylene, and includes isoprene.The CBM-IV is used within the GISS model (Shindell et al., 2003) and Tracer Model 3 (Houweling et al., 1998) to study tropospheric chemical dynamics.

The model framework
Each chemistry scheme is removed from the parent model and translated into the Kinetic PreProcessor (KPP) format (Sandu and Sander, 2006), which writes the ordinary differential equations to be integrated (available from (http://people.cs.vt.edu/ ∼ asandu/ Software/Kpp).The chemistry is integrated forwards using a Rosenbrock solver (Hairer and Wanner, 1991).Photolysis rates have been calculated using the solar zenith angle based on the framework used for the MCM (Jenkin, 1997;Saunders et al., 2003).Trimolecular reactions are represented differently within each model.For simplicity these reaction rates have been taken from published IUPAC data (IUPAC, 2001).In order to provide a consistent assessment, we have switched off all heterogeneous chemistry.Both TOMCAT and MOZART include a "gas phase" reaction of N 2 O 5 +H 2 O.The TOMCAT mechanism uses the IUPAC recommendation for the reaction rate of 2.5×10 −22 molecule cm −3 s −1 (IUPAC, 2001).The MOZART mechanism suggests that the user define the reaction rate and we have opted to use the JPL recommendation of 2×10 −21 molecule cm −3 s −1 (JPL, 2006) for comparison.These reactions are discussed later.

Boundary conditions
The chemistry schemes are run within a single box, forward in time for 120 h (5 days) starting from midnight.The choice of timescale is complex.Very long simulations would be unrealistic as the mixing of air masses would become a significant driver of Introduction

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Full Screen / Esc Printer-friendly Version Interactive Discussion composition, whereas very short timescales would not test the ability of the chemistry to feedback significantly on itself.To fully evaluate all the appropriate timescales, a global model would have to be run for multiples of the methane lifetime (the longest lived species).This is beyond the numerical resources available and a compromise of 5 days is chosen.
The simplest assumption for a single box is to assume no external fluxes.This implies that no emissions, deposition nor mixing takes place.For some species this approximation leads to a significant deviation from reality over the 5 day integration.This is most notable for oxides of nitrogen where the rapid conversion of NO x (defined as NO+NO 2 ) to NO z (defined as all oxidized nitrogen species minus NO x ) can lead to unrealistic conditions.To counter this, we repeat simulations maintaining a constant concentration of NO * x .We define NO * x as the sum of

The simulations
The chemistry schemes should be capable of accurately simulating the chemistry of the atmosphere under the wide range of conditions found within the troposphere.Over the remote marine boundary layer, concentrations of anthropogenic pollutants are low, whereas over highly populated regions concentrations of pollutants are high; chemical processes are different in the warm tropics compared with the cold poles etc.The ideal reduced chemistry scheme should be able to simulate the chemistry under the range of conditions found through the troposphere.
We identify a reasonable and consistent range of concentrations based on the output of a composition transport model.However, the coarse resolution of the global model results in an underestimate of the maximum concentrations likely to occur in industrial regions during pollution events.In order to simulate a regional pollution event, concentrations are taken from a field program around London.Conditions from the global model and the London project are described below.Introduction

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Global model conditions
An annual simulation (nominally the year 2004) of the GEOS-CHEM composition transport model (Bey et al., 2001) is used to prepare a range of appropriate initial conditions for the model simulations.The model is run at 4 • ×5 • resolution with 30 vertical levels.
The monthly mean concentration of tracers for each grid box is then used for a principal components analysis.This transforms the information known about each grid box from being in "concentration space" to being represented as a series of components which describe the variability between species.For example, in most industrial gridboxes the concentrations of primarily emitted species such as CO, NO x , and the hydrocarbons all vary with time in a similar manner, whereas the composition of forested grid-boxes with high emissions of isoprene and other biogenically emitted VOCs vary in a similar manner.The first three principal components describe 75% of the compositional variability within the model.The first component represents the variation between clean and polluted regions, the second component represents a warm area versus cold difference and the third component represents a biogenically active versus a biogenically inactive region.The two gridboxes which exhibit the most extreme behaviour (i.e. have the highest and lowest values of the component) from within each of these first three principal components are selected and their monthly mean concentrations used as the initial conditions for these model simulations.Table 2 gives the locations of the grid boxes and the conditions used.The different latitudes and days of year contribute to different photolytic conditions calculated within the model.

TORCH inputs and carbon lumping
Due to the spatial resolution of the GEOS-CHEM model, even the most anthropogenically polluted airmasses are less polluted than are observed in reality during a regional pollution event.In order to test the model under conditions typical of very polluted air- amidst a heat wave and photochemical smog episode (Lee et al., 2006).We have model inputs for 12 long-chain and cyclic alkanes ≤C 8 , 11 alkenes ≤C 5 , 6 aromatics ≤C 8 , 3 alcohols, isoprene and a range of small molecular weight aldehydes, acetylene and 1,3-butadiene (see Table 3).The MCM is the only chemistry scheme used here equipped to model the TORCH observations explicitly.Therefore some lumping of the carbon has been undertaken on a per carbon molecule basis to fit the other schemes, ensuring that the total initial concentration of reactive carbon (ppbC) in all the schemes is the same.
Table 3 shows the input concentrations for the average TORCH conditions along with the lumping taking place within the different schemes.Where schemes enable explicit representation, this is carried out.For all species which are not represented within a particular scheme, all alkanes are lumped into the highest alkane, all alkenes into the highest alkene, and all aromatics into the highest aromatic, maintaining the total mass of carbon.There are some exceptions, for example there is no alkene or aromatic representation in TOMCAT.Therefore, all alkenes and aromatics are lumped into propane on a per carbon basis (isoprene is treated separately).The MOZART scheme allows all alkane carbon into butane, but no aromatic representation means the aromatic carbon is lumped into propene.The CRI-reduced scheme allows for benzene, toluene, xylene, all alkanes and alkenes ≤C 4 to be treated explicitly; therefore all higher molecular weight compounds have been placed into butane or trans-but-2-ene where appropriate.For the GEOS-CHEM and GEOSito schemes the ethane, propane and isoprene concentrations are again taken from the observations, the ALK4 species is used to represent the remaining alkanes and the PRPE species is used to represent the remaining alkenes, alkynes and aromatics.In addition, the GEOSito scheme can deal separately with benzene and toluene.The CBM-IV mechanism allows ethane, propane, isoprene, toluene and xylene degradation, leaving the higher alkanes lumped into the PAR species, and the higher alkenes into the OLE species.Benzene has been lumped into the toluene species.

Diagnostics
The focus of this study is on chemistry schemes relevant for chemistry-climate simulations.Thus the emphasis is upon CH 4 and O 3 .The long lifetime of CH 4 (∼10 years) relative to the length of the simulations (5 days) makes a direct comparison of CH 4 less useful.The dominant sink for CH 4 in the atmosphere is the reaction of OH, thus we focus the comparison on the ability of the chemistry schemes to simulate OH.Ozone is another potent climate gas and also contributes to the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere through production of the hydroxyl radical, OH.At ground level, O 3 also causes public health issues and leads to the destruction of plant material.Reactive nitrogen species (NO x ) play a central role in the chemistry of the troposphere.They are responsible for the catalytic production of O 3 and for the conversion of HO 2 to OH. Numerical models must have some skill in simulating the NO x concentrations.In remote regions the source of NO x is the decomposition of PAN which is formed in polluted regions from the oxidation of hydrocarbons in the presence of NO x and subsequently exported to remote regions.During the night NO 3 acts as the dominant oxidant and needs to be considered.In this work we focus our comparisons on the ability of the various chemistry schemes on simulating the OH, O 3 , NO x , NO 3 and PAN concentrations.
Each of the chemistry schemes can be split into an "inorganic scheme" which considers essentially O x -HO x -NO x -CO-CH 4 chemistry, and an "organic" scheme that considers the degradation of VOCs.We test the inorganic chemistry first on the belief that there should be little model variability between the schemes.We then test the full chemistry schemes.

Results
We first present the results using the six initial conditions derived from the principal components analysis of the GEOS-CHEM model.First the inorganic segments of the different chemistry schemes are tested with no boundary conditions, then the full Introduction

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Full Screen / Esc Printer-friendly Version Interactive Discussion chemistry schemes are tested with no boundary conditions and finally the full chemistry schemes are tested with the constant NO * x boundary conditions.We tabulate the results in Table 4, to aid the reader in scheme comparisons with the MCM for O 3 production capabilities.

Inorganic schemes
This section compares the results when only the models' inorganic schemes are used.Other than CH 4 , HCHO and CH 3 OOH there is no reactive carbon in any of these initial conditions.Initially, comparisons highlighted a significant difference between TOM-CAT and MOZART, and the other schemes.This is diagnosed as being due to the gas phase reaction of N 2 O 5 +H 2 O that is included in the two schemes (optional in MOZART) and not the others.Figure 1 shows that the inclusion of the reaction in TOMCAT and MOZART leads to a ∼20 ppb difference in O 3 over the 120 h for the industrial case, impacting on OH production and NO x cycling.When this reaction is removed, we find much better agreement between the schemes (see Fig. 2).Although this reaction is in both the JPL and IUPAC recommendations there is some obvious doubt in the community over the rate, and this should be investigated by further collaboration.We remove this reaction from the MOZART and TOMCAT schemes in subsequent simulations.
Figure 2 shows results for all the chemistry schemes, showing OH, O 3 and NO x concentrations over 5 days.In general the results are similar, however given our assumed knowledge on the state of the science with regard to the inorganic chemistry it is surprising that the models exhibit any significant differences.The CBM-IV and GEOS-CHEM models show significant deviations from the MCM run (our defined standard) in the industrial case (Fig. 2a).After 5 days we find differences in O 3 of up to ∼8 ppb between the schemes.Using the industrial temperature of 299.7 K we calculate the differences in the scheme rates compared to the MCM: for example in the CBM- pect that inclusion of organic chemistry will make the calculated concentrations of OH, O 3 and NO x diverge further.Future collaborative studies between the IUPAC and JPL kinetic data communities could yield a definitive set of rates for the inorganic chemistry.

Full chemistry, no boundary conditions
Figure 3 shows the same simulations but with the inclusion of initial conditions for the organic species.Resulting O 3 concentrations are given in Table 4.The CRI-reduced scheme emulates the MCM result very well.Differences between the other schemes largely exist in the simulations where NO x and VOCs are high.For the "clean" regions simulated (Fig. 3b, d and f) the inclusion of the organic chemistry schemes lead to only small changes in the behaviour of the model.In these regions the concentrations of organic species are low and so it is not surprising that the inclusion of the organics is insignificant on our primary diagnostics (O 3 and OH).However, one notable difference is the generally lower NO x produced by the CBM-IV mechanism with the inclusion of the organics.In Fig. 3b and d, variations in the PAN concentrations calculated by the CBM-IV scheme vary by up to a factor of 5.There is no acetone in CBM-IV and the PAN precursor CH 3 CO 3 is produced from CH 3 CHO+NO 3 , which is inefficient at low NO x concentrations.The two GEOS-CHEM models produce twice the MCM peak PAN concentrations after 5 days (Fig. 3b).At low PAN concentrations significant variations exist between models.PAN is able to transport reactive nitrogen to cleaner regions of the atmosphere, therefore the different abilities of the chemical schemes to calculate PAN lead to concerns that the oxidizing capacities downwind of our box model will vary significantly.
The biogenic case (Fig. 3e) shows significant variation with some schemes producing O 3 and some losing O 3 .There is also a significant effect on the resulting OH concentrations.This suggests that there is no real consensus between models as to the impact of isoprene on the chemical system.Much of this debate hinges on the role of isoprene nitrates (Fiore et al., 2005;Ito et al., 2007;von Kuhlmann et al., 2004) We test the sensitivity of the O 3 concentrations calculated between the two GEOS-CHEM schemes by varying the initial isoprene on a scale between 0.01 and 30 ppb.The other inputs to the model were the same as the biogenic scenario inputs given in Table 2.The results (not shown) highlight the uncertainty in the chemistry of isoprene.The GEOS-CHEM run showed O 3 production from all initial inputs of isoprene.By contrast, the GEOSito scheme shows a distinct regime change from initial O 3 production for initial isoprene concentrations less than 2 ppb, to O 3 loss at initial isoprene concentrations greater than 2 ppb.The most marked change in behaviour occurs at isoprene input concentrations between 0.1-1 ppb.The reason for this switch from O 3 production to loss in GEOSito is the availability of NO x .When isoprene concentrations are in excess of 2 ppb the NO x is held in the organic nitrates and not released.This test has emphasized the differences in the treatment of isoprene between schemes, and underscores the fact that the chemistry of isoprene in the atmosphere is currently uncertain.

Full chemistry, with boundary conditions
We repeat the simulations with the constant NO * x boundary conditions and show the results in Fig. 4 and Table 4.By keeping the NO * x concentration constant, one of the dominant feedbacks on the system is removed -that between the organic chemistry and the NO * x concentrations.The higher NO * x concentrations together with the lack of surface deposition in the simulations lead to significant O 3 production in most cases.In general these results look similar to previous experiments.The largest differences are 19969 Introduction

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Full seen in the biogenic case (Fig. 4e) where the range of OH, O 3 and NO x concentrations are highest.The NO x concentration in the cold simulations (Fig. 4c and f) drops slowly as NO 2 is converted to HO 2 NO 2 (we do not initialize concentrations of HO 2 NO 2 ).Significant differences between model chemistry schemes are seen during the night.We show the NO 3 time series in Fig. 4 instead of PAN because the industrial and biogenic scenarios (Fig. 4a and e) exhibit near constant NO x conditions during the day, with substantial conversion at night to NO 3 and N 2 O 5 .NO 3 concentrations can vary by factors of ∼2 between models.Some of these differences can be attributed to the different O 3 concentrations calculated (which compare the rate of NO 3 production through NO 2 +O 3 ), however other significant differences exist in the treatment of NO 3 +VOC and NO 3 +RO 2 reactions.These are most significant for the biogenic cases.
These uncertainties in night time chemistry have a range of implications for night time NO x loss, nitrate aerosol production, secondary organic aerosol (SOA) production etc.Recently developed techniques for NO 3 and N 2 O 5 measurement (Brown et al., 2006) will allow enhanced testing of night time chemistry schemes which should yield improvements.

Lumped chemistry using TORCH input data
As described earlier, the conditions derived from the global model underestimate the values likely to occur during a regional scale pollution event due to the spatial and temporal averaging.As computational resources increase, the spatial scale of models is likely to reduce.Thus the concentrations of species that will need to be simulated will increase.To produce simulations at the most polluted levels, observations from the TORCH 2003 summer campaign are used (Lee et al., 2006).The dataset used here represents the mean conditions observed during a regional pollution episode.The campaign was categorized by temperatures up to 312 K and significant regional scale air pollution.Peak measurements of O 3 at the TORCH site reached in excess of 110 ppb, and with CO concentrations of 520 ppb (Lee et al., 2006).
Figure 5 and Table 4 show results for the simulation for the average TORCH cam-19970 Introduction

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Full paign.We include results for an "inorganic" case (Fig. 5a) using TORCH measurements of CH 4 , CO, NO x and O 3 to investigate the impact of the organic carbon (Fig. 5b).
We also show results including the constant NO * x boundary conditions (Fig. 5c).For all simulations we notice a difference in the night-time chemistry in the OH and NO x profiles, which is due to the treatment of NO 3 discussed in Sect.5.3.Significant differences are also seen in the calculated O 3 between schemes, which is more pronounced with the inclusion of the organic scheme simulations due to the higher NO x concentrations.The temporal variation in O 3 concentrations differ between the inorganic and organic simulations, with a pattern of loss early on for the inorganic test (Fig. 5a), and enhanced production after 75 h reflecting suppression of O 3 production by NO x early in the simulation followed by enhanced O 3 production later in the simulation as NO x decreases.By contrast there is production of O 3 from the start in the full chemistry simulations with no boundary conditions (Fig. 5b).Inclusion of the boundary conditions results in a loss of O 3 from the start of the run (Fig. 5c).In this respect the shape of the inorganic TORCH run combines elements from both full chemistry tests.The input concentrations for both full chemistry tests are the same, but inclusion of the extra NO * x through the boundary conditions has reduced the overall O 3 and OH concentrations compared with Fig. 5b.
These tests have been designed to investigate how well small chemistry schemes simulate increasingly complex tropospheric input scenarios.Therefore the smaller chemistry schemes have the same concentrations of carbon input, but it has been lumped into smaller molecular weight VOCs (Table 3).Overall the CRI-reduced scheme is an excellent proxy for the MCM.The smaller TOMCAT scheme shows good agreement with the MCM in predicting both OH and O 3 concentrations, even though all the carbon is lumped into the propane species.Such simplifications of the chemistry are necessary if global transport models require a full representation of the composition of the troposphere in future.Introduction

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Conclusions
Large explicit schemes of atmospheric chemistry such as the MCM are too complex to be considered for 3D global chemistry-climate models.However, they can be used as benchmarks against which to compare smaller reduced schemes which are suitable for inclusion.Six chemical schemes have been removed from their parent model environments and run in a simple box model with specific input concentrations.A variety of tests performed here highlight problems, both simple and complex, with the schemes used here.We find several main conclusions: 1.The CRI-reduced scheme contains 4% of the number of reactions in the MCM, yet has proved to be an excellent MCM surrogate as highlighted by the resulting O 3 concentrations from all the simulations in Table 4.We expect increased use of such reduced schemes in future, where the chemistry can be traced back to larger comprehensive schemes.
2. The gas phase reaction between N 2 O 5 and H 2 O is included in TOMCAT and MOZART but not in the other schemes.This leads to significant differences in the concentration of NO x .There appears to be confusion over the existence and rate of this reaction and laboratory studies should be undertaken to evaluate its significance.When this reaction is removed, small differences still exist in the inorganic chemistry schemes of the different models due to reaction rate inconsistencies.This suggests that a future effort should be to reduce some of the differences between model inorganic schemes.
3. PAN concentrations calculated in the full chemistry test with no boundary conditions (Sect.5.2) varied by up to a factor of 5 under clean conditions (Fig. 3b).The CBM-IV scheme, the smallest tested in this work, excludes acetone and thus has significant problems simulating PAN.Whilst the other mechanisms do include acetone, the rate at which the PAN precursor, CH 3 CO 3 is produced varies.As PAN is able to transport reactive nitrogen to cleaner regions of the atmosphere, 19972 Introduction

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Full Screen / Esc Printer-friendly Version Interactive Discussion these differences may impact on the oxidizing capacity in remote regions.
4. When organic chemistry is included, the differences between the models increase compared to the inorganic scheme alone.We find that these differences are most pronounced under high biogenic VOC loadings where even the sign of the impact of isoprene on O 3 varies between the schemes.We identify the treatment of isoprene derived organic nitrates as the dominant cause of these discrepancies.
Given that isoprene emission and chemistry is a critical composition-climate feedback we believe that resolving this issue should be of central importance to future research effort.
5. The night time chemistry also shows considerable differences between the schemes.Significant variations in NO 3 concentrations occur in simulations with high VOCs.The NO 3 produced varied by a factor of ∼2, and can be attributed to differences in the treatment of NO 3 +VOC and NO 3 +RO 2 reactions.These variations will impact night time oxidation, nitrate aerosol production and NO x concentrations.
In conclusion, we would like to draw attention to the differences that exist within the current generation of chemistry schemes.These differences can impact on the long range transport of species and aerosol production.This "chemistry uncertainty" is in addition to current model uncertainties due to dynamics, emissions, transport etc.Further laboratory kinetic studies will reduce this uncertainty.Advances in available computer time will soon allow moderately complex schemes such as CRI-reduced, which are based on reductions of explicit schemes, to be included in composition transport and composition climate models.Global model comparisons between simulations using complex chemistries and simpler chemistry will allow for a full evaluation of scheme capabilities.Full is a reduction scheme based on the O 3 production potential of a species.A lumping methodology assigns large numbers of MCM species to generic intermediate species, which are then used to channel the chemistry into masses, data are used from the Tropospheric Organic CHemistry (TORCH) field campaign which took place 25 miles north east of London, UK, during the summer of 2003, mechanism O 3 +OH (−65%), NO 3 +NO 2 (−39%) and O 3 +HO 2 (+29%); In GEOS-CHEM O 3 +NO (+14%).Much of this disagreement lies within differences between the IUPAC and JPL kinetics.If at this basic level the schemes do not agree, then we sus-

Fig. 1 .Fig. 2 .Fig. 3 .Fig. 4 .Fig. 5 .
Fig. 1.Inorganic scheme 120 h run to show differences in OH, O 3 , NO x and NO 3 between the TOMCAT and MOZART schemes with the gas phase N 2 O 5 + H 2 O reaction switched on ( √ ) and off (X).Initial conditions for the industrial scenario are used (Table2).
. Isoprene nitrates are formed through the reaction of NO with peroxy radicals formed 19968 Figures Degradation of organic nitrates via reaction with OH returns either NO x or HO x at the first degradation step, but not both.If NO x is returned to the chemical system, organic nitrates can act to transport 'reactivity' from the isoprene sources much as PANs do.The net effect being that O 3 concentrations can increase.If on the other hand NO x is not returned, then overall O 3 production is suppressed and O 3 loss can occur.Most schemes, with the exception of GEOSito and CBM-IV, will return the stored NO x .

Table 1 .
The chemical mechanisms.Note that only tropospheric reactions are used in this study.Number of reactions required for the (M) = full chemistry test and (T) = TORCH tests.

Table 2 .
Input values (ppb, except H 2 O which is ×10

Table 3 .
Division of species into lumped compounds within the full chemistry scheme tests.TORCH input concentrations, ppb, except H 2 O in units ×10 17 molecule cm −3 ."Me" is a methyl group.Chemical species are named using the methodology adopted by each mechanism.

Table 4 .
MCM O 3 concentrations (ppb) after 120 h box model runs, with the corresponding results from all other schemes displayed as +/−ppb.NB = no boundary conditions.WB = with boundary conditions.T = TORCH.Introduction